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Notes
This article is an outcome of the project Medical Treatise on the Climate and Infirmities of Mozambique (FCT HC/0121/2009), founded by Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, Portugal. I am very grateful to the editors and the reviewers of this journal for their comments and suggestions on an earlier version of this article.
J.-L. Flandrin, M. Montanari, 2001; S.W. Mintz, C.M.D. Bois, 2002; M. Montanari, 2012.
J. Goody, 1982.
M.P. Meneses, 2009, p. 2.
J.W. Estes, 2000.
For Swahili in Mozambique, see for example L.J.K. Bonate, 2007.
M. Newitt, 2008.
Merchants coming from Gujarat; see infra for more information.
B. Mártires, 1823, f. 23-24.
S. Gruzinski, 1999, p. 45.
E. Rodrigues, 2010; E. Rodrigues, 2010a.
A. Isaacman, B. Isaacman, 1975; J. Capela, 1995; M. Newitt, 1995, p. 127-146, p. 217-242; E. Rodrigues, 2010; E. Rodrigues, 2013, p. 735-780.
For Luanda, see C. Madeira Santos, 2007; C. Madeira Santos, 2009; R. Ferreira, 2012. For Benguela, see M.P. Candido, 2013.
A.A. Banha de Andrade, 1956; A.A. Banha de Andrade, 1958.
C. Madeira Santos, 2010, p. 540-541.
G. Rosen, 1980; M. Lindemann, 2010, p. 173-174; R. Porter, 1995, p. 465-466.
L. Abreu, 2013.
For further information regarding such views in Europe, see M. Lindemann, 2010, p. 160.
During this period three doctors from the Italian Peninsula acted as chief-physicians in Mozambique colony: João Domingos Tosco or Toscano (1788–1793) and Carlos José Guezzi (1793–1803), both from Piedmont, and Luís Vicente de Simoni (1819–1821), a native of Genoa. In 1782, another Italian doctor had been appointed to the Mozambique hospital, but he died during the journey. It is important to note that at least one of these doctors, Carlos José Guezzi, was sponsored by a great figure of the Portuguese political Enlightenment, D. Rodrigo de Sousa Coutinho, Portuguese ambassador at Turin (1779–1796) and later state secretary of the Navy and Overseas Affairs (1796–1801). Letter from Carlos José Guezzi to D. Rodrigo de Sousa Coutinho, 10/11/1798, Arquivo Histórico Ultramarino (hereafter, AHU), Moçambique (Mozambique, hereafter, Moç.), box 59, document (hereafter, doc.) 71. However, in the course of his stay in Mozambique Guezzi was very involved in the business of slave trade; apparently he did not pay much attention to the hospital. Regarding Guezzi’s participation in the slave trade, see J. Capela, 2002, p. 147.
G. Rosen, 1980, p. 182-184.
R. Porter, 1995, p. 468-472; M. Lindemann, 2010, p. 161.
Letter from Friar Vicente da Encarnação to the king, 23/12/1758, AHU, Moç., box 15, doc. 39; Plan of the hospital’s expenditure, 24/10/1765, AHU, Moç., box 25, doc. 84.
E. Rodrigues, 2012.
Letter from the governor-general Pedro Saldanha de Albuquerque to the state secretary, 01/08/1783, AHU, Moç., box 43, doc. 12. Also see the letter from governor-general Baltazar Pereira do Lago to the state secretary, 20/08/1766, AHU, Moç. Box 26, doc. 83.
Order issued by governor-general Pedro de Saldanha de Albuquerque, 02/04/1783, AHU, box 41, doc. 53; Regulations for the Royal Hospital in Mozambique, 01/01/1783, AHU, Moç., box 42, doc. 1.
Regulations for the Royal Hospital in Mozambique, 30/12/1788, AHU, Moç., box 56, doc. 72
Concerning the Misericórdias in the Portuguese empire, see I. Guimarães Sá, 1997; on Goan Misericórdia, see also F. Silva Gracias, 2000; on Mozambique Misericórdias, see E. Rodrigues, 2007.
Contract signed between the Royal Treasury and the Misericórdia Brotherhood, 12/03/1789, AHU, Moç., box 57, doc. 22; warrant issued by governor-general António de Melo e Castro, 05/06/1789, AHU, Moç., box 58, doc. 14.
Letter from governor-general José Francisco de Paula Cavalcanti de Albuquerque to the state secretary, 11/03/1817, AHU, Moç., box 152, doc. 76.
Regulations for Royal Military Hospitals, 27/03/1805, in A. Moutinho Borges, 2009, p. 177-200.
Order of the governor-general José Francisco de Paula Cavalcanti de Albuquerque, 04/03/11817, AHU, codex 1382, f. 204.
In 1838, it became necessary to increase the number of female slaves working in the hospital, since the total number of women admitted had risen. Letter from the interim government to the hospital’s administrator, Matias Antunes de Sousa, 03/05/1838, Arquivo Histórico de Moçambique (hereafter, AHM), Fundo do Século XIX, codex 11-6 Da6, f. 67.
In India, sepoys were indigenous soldiers trained and dressed similarly to European troops. About 1767, a company of sepoys was transported from Goa to the Zambezi valley to strengthen the defence of the Portuguese colony against the Africans. Later, in the 1780s, the Mozambique colonial government established an African company in the mainland of Mozambique Island. Mimetically, these soldiers were called sepoys. E. Rodrigues, 2006a.
“Mapa das pessoas que entraram, saíram, faleceram e existem no Hospital Real, do primeiro de Janeiro de 1793 até ao fim de Julho de 1794”, AHU, Moç., box 68, doc. 48.
“Mappa dos enfermos tratados no Hospital da Cidade de Moçambique, desde o mez de Outubro de 1819 até o de Julho de 1821”, I L.V. Simoni, 1858, p. 92.
With regard to hospitals in India, see D. Arnold, 1993.
Letter from Friar Vicente da Encarnação to the king, 23/12/1758, AHU, Moç., box 15, doc. 39.
Contract signed between the Royal Treasury and the Misericórdia Brotherhood, 12/03/1789, AHU, Moç., box 57, doc. 22; AHM, Fundo do Século XIX, codex 11 4780 Gd6, passim.
N. Hafkin, 1973; E.A. Alpers, 1975; J. Mbwiliza, 1991; M. Newitt, 2008; E.A. Alpers, 2009, p. 23-38.
L.A.C. Pereira Martins, P.J. Carvalho da Silva, S.R. Kuka Mutarelli, 2008; M. Lindemann, 2010, p. 11-25. With regard to medical concepts pertaining to various foods in European medicine, see J.W. Estes, 2000; J.-L. Flandrin, 2001; J.-L. Flandrin, 2001b.
D. Arnold, 2013, p. 82. See also D. Arnold, 1993, p. 125-126; M. Harrison, 2001; K. Faridabad, 2002.
T. Walker, 2002.
D. Arnold, 2013, p. 84; for Muslim medicine, see also I. Abdalla, 1992.
Concerning the healing practices in Swahili coast, see R.L. Pouwels, 1987, p. 88-93, 121; D. Owusu-Ansah, 2000.
C. Counihan, 2000.
E. Rodrigues, 2008.
F. Silva Gracias, 2005.
H. Salt, 1816, p. 31
H. Salt, 1816, p. 31-32.
Rice remained for a long time a luxury item in Portuguese cuisine. M. Barboff, 2010.
With regard to food habits in Goa, see M.J. Mártires Lopes, 1996, p. 318; F. Silva Gracias, 2005.
L.V. Simoni,1821, f. 114v.
Authorless, “Memorias da costa d’Africa oriental e algumas reflexões úteis para estabelecer melhor, e fazer mais florente o seu comercio”, in A.A. Banha de Andrade, 1955, p. 205; João Baptista Montaury, “Moçambique, ilhas Querimbas, Rios de Sena, villa de Tete, Villa de Zumbo, Manica, villa de Luabo, Inhambane”, c. 1778, in A.A. Banha de Andrade, 1955, p. 370-371.
As in Goa, in Mozambique sura was the juice extracted from the spathe of diverse palm, mainly the coconut palm. The word sura could denote the fresh juice, as was the case here, or the fermented beverage, which has different names depending on the degree of fermentation. S.R. Dalgado, 1919-1921, v. II, p. 330-331. On the production and consumption of sura in Mozambique, see E. Medeiros, 1988, p. 47-61.
E. Rodrigues, 2008.
See M.E. Madeira Santos, M.M. Ferraz Torrão, 1998; J.L. Silva, 1998.
According to M. Simões Alberto, it is Sorghum Vulgare, Pers.. M. Simões Alberto, 1965, p. 224.
According to M. Simões Alberto, it is Pennisetum Typhoideum, Rich.. M. Simões Alberto, 1965, p. 203.
Letter from Friar Vicente da Encarnação to the king, 23/12/1758, AHU, Moç., box 15, doc. 39. The same idea was expressed, for example, in: António Pinto de Miranda, “Memória sobre a Costa de África”, in A.A. Banha de Andrade, 1955, p. 232; letter from governor-general Francisco de Melo de Castro to the engineer António José de Melo, 14/11/1755, AHU, codex 1310, f. 147v-149; letter from governor-general Baltazar Pereira do Lago to the secretary of state, 18/08/1767, AHU, Moç., box 26, doc. 67.
A.J. Grieco, 1991; A.J. Grieco, 1993; A.J. Grieco, 2001.
J. Goody, 1982, p. 113.
H. Salt, 1816, p. 45-46.
H. Salt, 1816, p. 74; B. Mártires, 1823, f. 27, 60-61. See also E.A. Alpers, 2009, p. 23-38.
F.J. Lacerda e Almeida, 1797.
B. Mártires, 1823, f. 5.
M.J. Mártires Lopes, 1996, p. 318-319.
B. Mártires, 1823, f. 29.
B. Mártires, 1823, f. 29-31.
Sambo, or ntsamabu in ShiNgazija and Kiswahili, is a variety of sago, obtained from the seeds of the palm-like tree Cycas circinalis L. See E.A. Alpers, 2009, p. 150; 224, n. 7.
L.V. Simoni, 1821, f. 115v. Apas is a word transported to Mozambique from Goa, where it designates the same kind of roasted unleavened bread called chapatti in other regions of India. S.R. Dalgado, 1919-1921, v. 1, p. 47-48.
For the Zambezi valley see, for example, diverse historical descriptions in A.A. Banha de Andrade, 1955.
L.V. Simoni, 1821, f. 45v, 55-55v.
Owing to the importance of bread in the feeding and religion of Europe, Europeans tended to see as bread different foods they found in other cultures. See M. Chastanet, 2002.
One Portuguese ounce was equivalent to 28,6848 g.
L.V. Simoni, 1821, f. 45v, 113v; B. Mártires, 1823, f. 34.
L.V. Simoni, 1821, f. 55v. About the diffusion of maize in Africa, see J. McCann, 2005.
E. Rodrigues, 1998.
H. Salt, 1816, p. 32-33, p. 45.
B. Mártires, 1823, f. 48-49. See also F.J.L. Almeida, 1797.
L.V. Simoni, 1821, f. 113v-114.
João Baptista Montaury, “Moçambique, ilhas Querimbas, Rios de Sena, villa de Tete, Villa de Zumbo, Manica, villa de Luabo, Inhambane”, c. 1778, in A.A. Banha de Andrade, 1955, p. 341-342.
J.J. Sequeira Magalhães e Lanções, 1779.
L.V. Simoni, 1821, f. 159.
H. Salt, 1816, p. 51.
B. Mártires, 1823, f. 34.
L.V. Simoni, 1821, f. 52, 113v; E. Rodrigues, 1998.
Letter from governor-general Pedro Saldanha de Albuquerque to the secretary of state, 01/08/1783, AHU, Moç., box 43, doc. 12. Also see the order issued by governor-general Pedro de Saldanha de Albuquerque, 16/06/1786, AHU, codex 1360, f. 12-12v.
Regulations for the Royal Hospital, 30/12/1788, AHU, Moç., box 56, doc. 72.
Regulations for the Royal Hospital, 30/12/1788, AHU, Moç., box 56, doc. 72.
S.R. Dalgado indicates that this was “a kind of jiggery dish cooked with some vegetables”. S.R. Dalgado, 1919–1921, v. 2, p. 124. Other dictionaries describe it as being a rice dish cooked with spices. A. Morais Silva, 1948, v. 2, p. 199.
Rice soup was also commonly eaten for breakfast. S.R. Dalgado, 1919–1921, v. 1, p. 206; M.J. Mártires Lopes, 1996, p. 319; F. Silva Gracias, 2005, p. 279.
Nowadays, there are several ways to cook curry, including the use of coconut milk in the north and the peanut milk in the south. These ‘milks’ are prepared by pouring hot water over the grated coconut and the ground peanuts. After standing for awhile, each of the mixtures has to be sieved. For the place of curry in the process of construction of a Mozambican cuisine, see M.P. Meneses, 2009.
S.R. Dalgado, 1919–1921, v. 2, p. 124.
Letter from Friar Vicente da Encarnação to the king, 23/12/1758, AHU, Moç., box 15, doc. 39; Report regarding the Royal Hospital’s expenditure from 1799 to 1808, 24/12/1808, AHU, Moç., box 84, doc. 83.
In Portugal, chicken was given to weaker patients while other patients were fed lamb and beef. See “Formulas das rações com que devem ser assistidos os enfermos e mais pessoas que servem no Hospital Real Militar desta Corte”, 01/09/1765; “Regulamento dos hospitais militares de campanha”, 07/08/1797, in A. Moutinho Borges, 2009, p. 158-177. For Europe, see J.W. Estes, 2000, p. 1538-1539.
This is a kind of anchovy (Stolephorus indicus), which is still eaten today. I am very grateful to Dr. Atanásio Brito, Director of the Instituto Nacional de Investigação Pesqueira, Mozambique, for this information.
Letter to the king, after 1774, AHU, Índia, box 84.
For further information about the consumption of fish during the Ancien Régime, see M. Ferrières, 2002, p. 214-216; J-L. Flandrin, 2001, p. 109-110.
“Relação dos efeitos que restão em meu poder da compra, que fizerão para o ministerio do Real Hospital”, c. 1779, AHU, Moç., box 32, doc. 101.
I. Guimarães Sá, 1997, p. 190-191; C. Bastos, 2010, p. 63.
Report on meals served to patients at the Royal Hospital, 01/01/1783, AHU, Moç., box 41, doc. 1.
Report on the hospital’s meal plans, 24/10/1765, AHU, Moç., box 25, doc. 84.
Ordinance issued by the governor-general, 24/03/1794, AHU, codex 1360, f. 110.
Requisition by António Lima Leitão to the governor-general, 25/10/1819, AHU, Moç., box 165, doc. 45; letter from the governor-general to the secretary of state, 07/11/1819, AHU, Moç., box 166, doc. 11.
Letter from the governor-general João Manuel da Silva to the secretary of state, 27/11/1821, AHU, Moç., box 181, doc. 121.
Inventory of the Royal Hospital, 1789, AHU, codex 1565, f. 2-2v.
“Livro da matrícula da mestrança, marinheiros e escravos ao serviço de S. Alteza Real na ribeira, hospital e respectiva botica, na praça de S. Sebastião de Moçambique”, AHU, codex 1569, f. 19-23v, 30v-33. The slave from Rio de Janeiro, Gaspar, was an apothecary who was banished to Mozambique. Letter from the secretary of state to the governor-general, 17/06/1812, Requisition by António Pinto Sequeira, AHU, Moç., box 142, doc. 68.
See, for example, Authorless, “Memorias da costa d’Africa oriental e algumas reflexões úteis para estabelecer melhor, e fazer mais florente o seu comercio”, in A.A. Banha de Andrade, 1955, p. 212; “Instrucção que o Ill.mo e Ex.mo Sr. Governador e Capitão General Baltazar Manuel Pereira do Lago deo a quem lhe suceder neste governo”, in A.A. Banha de Andrade, 1955, p. 321.
Inventory of the Royal Hospital, AHU, codex 1565, f. 3v-4. One arrátel (16 ounces) was equivalent to 0.459 kg.
Letter from Friar Vicente da Encarnação to the king, 23/12/1758, AHU, Moç., box 15, doc. 39.
M. Morineau, 2001, p. 180.
Plan of the hospital’s expenditure, from 1799 to 1808, 24/11/1808, AHU, Moç., box 84, doc. 83.
B. Mártires, 1823, f. 12.
L.V. Simoni, 1821, f. 115-117.
R. Porter, 1995, p. 418; J.W. Estes, 2000, p. 1538-1544; J.-L. Flandrin, 2001b, p. 270-271.
M. Ferrières, 2002, p. 365.
M. Foucault, 1980.
C. Bastos, 2011, p. 27-28.
E. Rodrigues, 2006, p. 621-624.
L.V. Simoni, 1821.
Simoni was influenced by the concept of temperament framed by humoral medicine, but he also incorporated the new medical theories about fibres and nerves. Throughout his Medical Treatise he hesitated in classifying temperaments, but he represented people in Mozambique as having lymphatic, bilious, sanguine, muscular, and nervous temperaments, with different kinds of physical and moral characteristics, and distinguished inclination to diverse diseases. E. Rodrigues, 2006, p. 632-636.
E. Rodrigues, 2006.
AHM, Fundo do Século XIX, codex 11.4780 Gd6, f. 48-49.
AHM, Fundo do Século XIX, codex 11 4780 Gd6, f. 50-53.
AHM, Fundo do Século XIX, codex 11 4780 Gd6, f. 203-203v.
It was not possible to know if this “bread biscuit” referred to bread cooked twice or to breadcrumbs.
AHM, Fundo do Século XIX, codex 11 4780 Gd6, f. 216v-219v.
L.V. Simoni, 1821, f. 112v-113.
There was not a consensus, but several doctors argued with the benefits of consuming vegetables and some even advocated a vegetarian diet. See J.W. Estes, 2000, p. 1543-1545. J.-L. Flandrin argued that the progressive inclusion of the vegetables in the elite diet in Europe was related with a medical transgression, besides a change in its social status. J.-L.Flandrin, 2001b, p. 263-264.
L. Gianetti, 2010.
Gonçalim is the fruit of Luffa acutangula Roxb., used as a vegetable. S.R. Dalgado, 1919–1921, v. 1, p. 437.
B. Mártires, 1823, f. 24-25.
L.V. Simoni, 1821, f. 121-124.
L.V. Simoni, 1821, f. 122v.
L.V. Simoni, 1821, f. 117-118v.
See, for example, order issued by interim government, 31/03/1819, AHU, codex 1382, f. 24v.
See the hospital’s monthly expenditure reports, AHM, codex 11 4780 Gd6, passim.
L.V. Simoni, 1821, f. 115.
Hospital’s monthly expenditure reports, AHM, codex 11 4780 Gd6, passim.
AHM, Fundo do Século XIX, codex 11 4780 Gd6, f. 54-56.
“Rellação dos effeitos que restão em meu poder da compra, que fizerão para o ministerio do Real Hospital”, c. 1779, AHU, Moç., box 32, doc. 101; Plan of the hospital’s expenditure, from 1799 to 1808, 24/12/1808, AHU, Moç., box 84, doc. 83; AHM, Fundo do Século XIX, codex 11 4780 Gd6, passim.
P. Norrie, 2003.
L.V. Simoni, 1821, f. 196-199.
L.V. Simoni, 1821, f. 125v-126, 198-198v. See also E. Medeiros, 1988, p. 52-60.
L.V. Simoni, 1821, f. 45v. On the consumption of these beverages in Angola, see J. Curto, 2004, especially p. 162-184.
J.-L. Flandrin, 2001a, p. 207.
L.V. Simoni, 1821, f. 196-201v.
L.V. Simoni, 1821, f. 204-205v.
A. Huetz de Lemps, 2001, p. 215-217; I. Fattacciu, 2012.
L.V. Simoni, 1821, f. 204. The preparation of chocolate with eggs was probably due to the influence of French traders who frequented Mozambique to negotiate slaves. With regards to the way of preparing chocolate with egg yolks in France, see I. Fattacciu, 2012.
A. Huetz de Lemps, 2001, p. 220-222.
B. Mártires, 1823, f. 28-29. Also see L.V. Simoni, 1821, f. 199v-202.
A. Huetz de Lemps, 2001, p. 217-220.
See, for example, the letter from the state secretary D. Rodrigo de Sousa Coutinho to the governor-general Isidro de A. Sousa e Sá, 02/03/1800, AHU, códex 1472, f. 164-164v.
M.P. Meneses, 2009, p. 2.
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