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Notes
A.M.L. Burdo, 1886, vol. 1, p. 304.
J. Verne, 1863, p. 78-79. Verne called Tabora “Kaseh” (see below).
Today, Tabora is a city in central-western Tanzania, the capital of the Tabora Region, with a population of 160,608 inhabitants; see Tanzania, Population and Housing Census, 2012.
R.W. Beachey, 1967, p. 274; E.A. Alpers, 1974; A. Sheriff, 1987; M. Chaiklin, 2010; K. Pallaver, 2016.
See E.A. Alpers, 1974; A. Sheriff, 1987; G. Campbell, 2005; J.G. Deutsch, 2006; S. Doyle, H. Médard, 2007; H. Médard, M.L. Derat, T. Vernet, M.P. Ballarin, 2013.
A comprehensive discussion of the development of long-distance trade in 19th-century East Africa is beyond the scope of this paper; for some general overviews, see J. Iliffe, 1979, p. 40-87; A. Sheriff, 1987; J. Koponen, 1988; J. Glassman, 1995; S. Rockel, 2006a.
B. Freund, 2007, p. 46. For a discussion on settlement patterns in precolonial Tanzania, see J. Koponen, 1988, p. 345-359. For an overview of the urban history of East Africa, see A. Burton, 2002.
C. Coquery-Vidrovitch, 2005a, p. 213; J. Parker, 2000, p. XXII.
B. Brown, W.T. Brown, 1976, p. 198.
As cited in J. Abu Lughod, 1989, p. 13-14; Other works on East African towns include S. Fabian, 2019 and W.T. Brown, 1971 on Bagamoyo; S. Rockel, 2006b on Mpwapwa; B. Brown, 1973 on Ujiji.
The prefix “U-” is used in Kiswahili to indicate a land or region; therefore, Unyamwezi is the “land of the Nyamwezi”. The name “Nyamwezi” – that means in Kiswahili “people of the moon” – was first used by people on the coast to refer to traders coming from the west, where the moon is first seen. It was therefore not the name of an ethnic group but a collective name used to refer to various groups of people who had their own names for themselves. Later, the ethnonym was appropriated by people of the region and further reified by its usage by Europeans during the colonial period. See A. Roberts, 1968, p. 117; J.P. Chrétien, 1989.
A.C. Unomah, 1972, p. 115.
J.R. Brennan, 2013, p. 40-42.
Chronique Trimestrielle, January 1879, 1.
J.A. Moloney, 1893.
Another example in this sense is Mpwapwa; see S. Rockel, 2006b, p. 13.
A.M.L. Burdo, 1886, vol. 1, p. 304.
Journal de Kipalapala, 22 May 1886, Archives Générales de la Société des Missionaires d’Afrique (hereafter A.G.M.Afr.), Rome.
The wali or liwali was the highest-ranked local official in the Omani state apparatus; see J. Glassman, 1995, XVI; R.F. Burton, 1860, vol. 1, p. 329.
R.F. Burton, 1859, p. 181; see also A.C. Unomah, 1972, p. 79-80.
R.F. Burton, 1860, vol. 1, p. 327; see also T. McDow, 2018, p. 88.
R.F. Burton, 1860, vol. 1, p. 224.
A.C. Unomah, 1970b.
H. Léonard, Notes sur Tabora, (particulierment sur les Arabes) 1923–1925, manuscript, A.G.M.Afr.
C. Velten, 1901, p. 8-11.
A mwungwana (pl. waungwana) was a gentleman, patrician, refined urban Muslim, a “civilized” person from the coast; the opposite was mshenzi, a “barbarian” and “pagan”, generally from the interior; see J. Glassman, 1995, p. XVI. This was not the social group of slave origin that also took up the collective name “Waungwana”; see S. Rockel, 2009.
“Arab” is a term that is often ambiguous in the sources and used to refer to people of either Omani or Swahili origin. According to Burton, the coastal traders who resided in Tabora were largely of Omani origin, whereas Swahili traders from the coast were settled at Msene, in Western Unyamwezi; see R.F. Burton, 1859, p. 188.
Muhina bin Slemani Le’urubi is mentioned by Stanley in his Plan of Unyanyembe (see Fig. 2). Therefore, it is quite unlikely he was the founder of the first Arab settlement in Tabora. The second was Unakwitwa Bahareni, which was owned by an Arab called Saidi bin Ali. The third village was named Lufita and owned by Said bin Salum and Mwenyi Mlenda, a man from the coast. The third village was called Mkowani, owned by the Arab Saidi bin Habibu el-Afif. The fifth village was called Bomani and owned by an Arab whose name is Seti bin Juma. The sixth village was called Mbugani, owned by an Arab called Salum bin Ali. The seventh was called Tshemtshem, owned by an Indian whose name was Juma bin Dina. The eighth village was called Ngambo, owned by an Arab whose name was Muhamed bin Nasur. The ninth village was Mbirani, owned by the Arab Ali bin Sultani. The tenth village name was Malolo, owned by an Arab, Rashid bin Salum. The eleventh was Kwihara, owned by an Arab whose name was Abdallah bin Nasibu. The twelfth was Gange, owned by an Arab, Thani bin Abdallah. The thirteenth was Miemba, owned by the Arab Farhani bin Othmani. Another village was Ituru, owned by the Arab Mahammadi bin Juma, the father of Tipu Tip (Hahmed bin Mohammadi), who had married Chief Fundikira’s daughter, and his relative Mohammed bin Said El-Wardi; see C. Velten, 1901, p. 8-9.
N. Carré, 2014, p. 10; 107.
T. von Prince, Tabora, 28 January 1893, Bundesarchivabteilungen, Reichskolonialamt (hereafter RKA), Berlin, 1001/1030-4160.
Rapport du Père Guillet, Tabora, 8 October, 1881, A.G.M.Afr. C 20-62 (my translation). “Chemchem” is the Kiswahili for “spring of water”.
C.T. Wilson, W. Felkin, 1882, vol. 1, p. 133.
A.M.L. Burdo, 1886, vol. 1, p. 304; J. Marissal, 1979, p. 225.
J.H. Speke, 1864, p. 97.
When Stanley asked about the location of Kazeh to the trader and wali of Tabora Sayd bin Salim, Sayd replied that he had never heard the name before. He stated said that in Kinyamwezi Kazeh meant “kingdom” and that a settlement with this name had never existed; see H.M. Stanley, 1872, p. 190.
L. Bigon, 2016, p. V; Kazeh is today a name of a hill in the Tabora area, which in the maps of the German colonial period was called “Kazehberg”; see German Maps (hereafter GM), East Africana Collection (hereafter EAF) 81, 5 May 1914, University Library of Dar es Salaam; F. Spellig, 1927, p. 204.
H. Léonard, Notes sur Tabora (particulierment sur les Arabes), 1923–25, manuscript, A.G.M.Afr.
N.R. Bennett, 1970, p. 25-26. For an interesting discussion of the etymological history of the name of another East African town, Bagamoyo, see W.T. Brown, 2016, p. 37-44. In the Swahili language, “Ki” is the prefix for “language”; therefore Kinyamwezi means “the language of the Nyamwezi”.
A.C. Unomah, 1972, p. 81.
R.G. Abrahams, 1967, p. 38; A. Roberts, 1970, p. 41.
A. Roberts, 1968; A. Roberts, 1970.
A.C. Unomah, 1970a.
J. Becker, 1887, vol. 1, p. 22.
S. Rockel, 2006a.
A. Guillet to Maison Maire (hereafter MM), Tabora, 8 October 1881, A.G.M.Afr. C 20-62.
A. Dodgshun to J. Kirk, Unyanyembe, 27 January 1879, The National Archives (hereafter TNA), London, FO 84/1547; P. Livinhac, Sainte Marie près de Roubaga, 9 September 1879, A.G.M.Afr. C 11-12.
Besides Tabora, other settlements developed in Unyamwezi as a consequence of long-distance trade; see A.C. Unomah, 1970a; T. McDow, 2018, p. 124.
A.C. Unomah, 1970a.
R.F. Burton, 1859, p. 180.
R.F. Burton, 1859, p. 180-181; Burton’s description of Tabora as a collection of villages was confirmed by later travellers. See, among others, P. Hassing, N.R. Bennett, 1962, p. 137; J. Thomson, 1881, p. 189.
R.G. Abrahams, 1967; A.C. Unomah, 1970b.
A.C. Unomah, 1972, p. 121.
A.C. Unomah, 1972, p. 122.
A.C. Unomah, 1972, p. 122; R.G. Abrahams, 1967, p. 37-41.
A.C. Unomah, 1972, p. 124; S. Rockel, 2012, p. 164.
J. Iliffe, 1979, p. 61-62.
The chief had the right to demand one tusk of every two “produced” in his chiefdom; however, this was not always fully enforced, and ivory hunters were required to send only part of their tusks to the mtemi.
A.C. Unomah, 1972, p. 92-94.
H. Léonard, Notes sur Tabora (particulierment sur les Arabes), 1923–25, A.G.M.Afr.; P. Reichard, 1892, p. 345; Kwikuru meant “chief village” or “capital city”; see E. Hore, 1892, p. 56; R.F. Burton, 1859, p. 180.
Journal de Kipalapala, entries of 3 March 1885, 5 October 1885, 3 October 1886, A.G.M.Afr.
Journal de Kipalapala, February 1885; December 1887; July 1888, A.G.M.Afr.
S. Wynne-Jones, 2010, p. 221.
A.M.L. Burdo, 1886, vol. 1, p. 286.
J. Becker, 1887, vol. 1, p. 214-215.
Anonymous, 1884, p. 191.
P. Reichard, 1890, p. 67; “Extrait du Journal des Missionaires du Nyanza”, Kwihara, Unyanyembe, October – November 1878, in Chronique Trimestrielle, 1879, 2.
R. Reid, 1998; A. Shorter,1968; N.R. Bennett, 1963; N.R. Bennett, 1968; A.C. Unomah, 1972, p. 121.
Journal de Kipalapala, entries of 3 and 4 December 1886, A.G.M.Afr.
J.H. Speke, 1864, p. 77.
For a detailed reconstruction of the events, see N.R. Bennett, 1968, p. 222 and ff.; J.H. Speke, 1864, p. 84-123; B. Brown, W.T. Brown, 1976, p. 194-195; see also M. Moyd, 2014, p. 74.
H. Léonard, Notes sur Tabora (particulierment sur les Arabes), 1923–25, A.G.M.Afr.
N.R. Bennett, 1975, p. 57.
Journal de Père Deniaud, 3 December 1879, A.G.M.Afr. C 11-18; P. Combarieu to MM, Tabora, 27 December 1879, A.G.M.Afr. C 14-282.
Journal de Père Deniaud, 3 December 1879, A.G.M.Afr C 11-18; P. Combarieu to MM, Tabora, 27 December 1879, A.G.M.Afr C 14-282; Kirk to Derby, Zanzibar, 4 April 1878, TNA FO 84/1414; N.R. Bennett, 1975.
A.M.L. Burdo, 1886, vol. 1, p. 286.
A. Sheriff, 1987, p. 193; B. Brown, W.T. Brown, 1976, p. 195.
T. McDow, 2018, p. 141.
N. Bennett, 1975, p. 55.
D.C. Sperling, 2000, p. 288; A. Smith, 1963, p. 287.
B. Brown, W.T. Brown, 1976, p. 192.
Journal de Kipalapala, 3 March 1885, A.G.M.Afr; P. Hauttecoeur to MM, Kipalapala, 14 February 1889, A.G.M.Afr C 20-198; Journal de Kipalapala, 17 January 1889 A.G.M.Afr.
The 1889 block lasted from 17 January to 11 April; see Journal de Kipalapala, 11 April 1889, A.G.M.Afr.
Erklärung. Abschrift von Anlage zu 2121, Tabora, 14 January 1893, RKA 1001/1030-2121; J. Iliffe, 1979, p. 103.
A. Leue, Tabora, 30 October 1895, RKA 1001/1030-1056. See also GM 85 Plan von Tabora, EAF.
F. Nolan, 1977, p. 269. According to the White Fathers, he was well respected not only by the Arab community, but also by the other components of Tabora society; see Diaire de St. Boniface de Tabora, 8 October 1900; 9 February 1903, A.G.M.Afr.
S. Wynne-Jones, S. Croucher, 2007; S. Wynne-Jones, 2010.
A. Gottberg, 2012, p. 96.
A.C. Unomah, 1972, p. 78.
R.F. Burton, 1859, p. 188; see also H.M. Stanley, 1872, p. 264.
T. McDow, 2018, p. 104-106. The Swahili traders of Msene—an eight-day march from Tabora—later moved to Unyanyembe and established small colonies, such as Mfuto, which was connected to Kwihara by a direct road; A.C. Unomah, 1972, p. 80.
D. Livingstone, 1874, vol. 2, p. 182.
A. Sheriff, 1987, p. 193.
R.F. Burton, 1860, vol. 1, p. 328.
T. McDow, 2018, p. 107; on the development of new forms of consumerism in 19th-century East Africa, see J. Prestholdt, 2008.
H.M. Stanley, 1872, p. 264-265.
P. Hauttecoeur, Tabora, 25 December 1882, A.G.M.Afr. C 20-104 (my translation). A similar description of the condition of the Arabs of Tabora can be found in C. Velten, 1901, p. 9.
A.C. Unomah, 1972, p. 117.
P. Guillet to MM, Tabora, 20 August 1881, A.G.M.Afr. C 16-73; W. Blohm, 1931, vol. 1, p. 176; D.C. Sperling, 2000, p. 288-289; for a description of a harem in Tabora, see J.A. Grant, 1864, p. 49.
Lt. Hermann, Tabora, 2 April 1892, RKA 1001/1030-6381; see K. Pallaver, 2010, p. 122.
F. Longland, 1963, p. 84; N.R. Bennett, 1970, p. 20.
D. Livingstone, 1874, vol. 2, p. 224.
P. Guillet, Tabora, 8 October 1881, A.G.M.Afr. C 20-62.
Some of the plantation owners had moved from the coast to Tabora after the 1873 abolition treaty between the Sultan of Zanzibar and the British; see R. Schmidt, 1894, p. 182.
J.H. Speke, 1864, p. 91.
J. Becker, 1887, vol. 2, p. 30. The wheat produced in Tabora was renowned for its excellent quality and was grown thanks to an ingenious system of irrigation based on the use of damp hollows. Adolphe Burdo compared this irrigation system to that of the Egyptians and was astonished at how the Arabs had successfully transformed Tabora into a “jardin potager splendide”; A.L.M. Burdo, 1886, vol. 1, p. 301. Burdo produced very detailed and complimentary descriptions of the Arabs and their achievements in Tabora; this was a way to support his idea that the Belgians needed to ally themselves with the Arabs if they wanted to secure a strong position in East Africa. See also J. Becker, 1887, vol. 1, p. 222; R.F. Burton, 1860, vol. 1, p. 225-226; A.L.M. Burdo, 1885, p. 15; A.M.L. Burdo, 1886, vol. 1, p. 306; Compte-rendus de l’Abbè Guyot, 1881, A.G.M.Afr. C 20-8.
The tembe was a large square building with a flat roof; for a full description, see below.
P. Combarieu to MM, Tabora, 28 October 1879, A.G.M.Afr. C 14-283.
H.M. Stanley, 1872, p. 264-265; S. Rockel, 2019 p. 7.
C. Coquery-Vidrovitch, 2005a, p. 22; A.C. Unomah, 1972, p 106; S. Rockel, 2006a, p. 57.
A.C. Unomah, 1972, p. 117.
H. Meyer, 1910, p. 274.
A. Roberts, 1970.
J.G. Deutsch, 2006, p. 24; A. Roberts, 1970, p. 127.
R. Cummings, 1973, p. 116.
A.C. Unomah, 1972, p. 100-113; R. Reid, 2002, p. 161.
R.F. Burton, 1859, p. 182.
H. Léonard, Notes sur Tabora (particulièrement sur les Arabes), 1923–25, A.G.M.Afr.
J.A. Grant, 1864, p. 50.
F. Stuhlmann, 1894, p. 61.
Chronique Trimestrelle, 1879, 1; A. Dodgshun, 20 January, 1879, Journals. From London to Ujiji, 1877–1879, Council for World Mission (hereafter CWM), SOAS, London.
A.M.L. Burdo, 1886, vol. 1, p. 304. The reason for this is not clear from the sources. In reality, little information is available on Kwihara, as compared to Tabora and the Kwikuru.
H.M. Stanley, 1872, p. 264-266. The distance from Kwihara to Sokoni was about 45 minutes.
H.M. Stanley, 1872, p. 264.
J. Becker, 1887, vol. 2, p. 24.
B. Freund, 2007, p. 47.
P. Tyiambe Zeleza, 1993, vol. 1, p. 297.
J. Becker, 1887, vol. 2, p. 24.
J. Becker, 1887, vol. 1, p. 222; see also R.F. Burton, 1860, vol. 1, p. 329.
J. Becker, 1887, vol. 1, p. 211.
S. Rockel, 2019.
According to the 1931 Census, 11,326 Tutsi resided in Tabora district, out of a total of 21,166 Tutsi population in the entire Tanganyika Territory; Tanganyika Territory, 1933. Another census had been carried out in 1921, but it provided details only on the major ethnic groups (Nyamwezi, Sumbwa and Sukuma), whereas the rest of the population was included under the definition “miscellaneous small tribes”; see Tanganyika Territory, 1922, p. 9.
J. Becker, 1887, vol. 1, p. 211; P. Reichard, 1892, p. 345.
W. Langheld, 1909, p. 55.
A.C. Unomah, 1970a; miombo is the Kiswahili for the Brachystegia tree, which is common in central and southern Africa.
W. Langheld, 1909, p. 54; C. Coquery-Vidrovitch, 2005a, p. 22. Tobacco had been introduced to Africa from the Americas in the late 16th century; C.S. Duvall, 2017. At the time of Burton’s visit in the interior regions of East Africa, it was a product widely available. It was planted at the end of the rainy season and harvested in October; the best variety was produced in the region of Usambara. According to Burton, in “Unyamwezi all sexes and ages enjoy the pipe”; see R.F. Burton, 1859, p. 404-405.
Rapport du Père Guillet, Tabora, 8 October 1881, A.G.M.Afr., C 20-62; C. Murphy to B. Frere, Zanzibar, 10 March 1874, Royal Geographical Society, London (hereafter RGS), The Verney Lovett Cameron Collection, VLC 3/4; L’Esclavage en Afrique par un ancien diplomate, Paris, 1890, p. 320.
J. Becker, 1887, vol. 1, p. 222.
K. Pallaver, 2009; 2016.
A. Dodgshun, Journal. From London to Ujiji, 1877–79, 20 January 1879, Central Africa, Box 1, CWM.
As quoted in M.A. Quiggin, 1970, p. 102; see also J. Becker, 1887, vol. 1, p. 24-27.
R.F. Burton, 1859, p. 189.
B. Brown, 1973, p. 72.
B. Brown, W.T. Brown, 1976, p. 189-190.
R.F. Burton, Field Notebook, East Coast to Ujiji, 1858, RGS, The Sir Richard Francis Burton Collection (1852–1880) (hereafter RFB) 1.
R.F. Burton, 1859, p. 185; J.H. Speke, 1860–1861, p. 12; J. Becker, 1887, vol. 2, p. 27.
Tanzania National Archives, Dar es Salaam, G 8/26 Band 1 1908–1914; for a discussion of private property in Tabora, see K. Pallaver, 2010, p. 85 and ff.
Journal de Kipalapala, 11 August 1885, A.G.M. Afr. Fundi is the Kiswahili for “craftsman”.
R.F. Burton, Field Notebook, East Coast to Ujiji, 1858, RGS RFB 1.
J. Koponen, 1988, p. 353. A minimum of five families lived in the hinterland-style tembe; see Anonymous, 1884, p. 121.
J. Becker, 1887, vol. 1, p. 223; A.M.L. Burdo, 1886, vol. 1, p. 305; R.F. Burton, 1859, p. 182-183. In Kiswahili, the barzah was called baraza.
In the African tembe, the livestock was kept inside, in the courtyard; see Anonymous, 1884, p. 173; see Fig. 7.
R.F. Burton, 1859, p. 182.
A. Dodghsun, From Zanzibar to Ujiji, 14 February 1879, CWM Central Africa, Box 1; see also W. Langheld, 1909, p. 54.
D. Livingstone, 1874, vol. 2, p. 224.
R.F. Burton, Field Notebook, East Coast to Ujiji, 1858, RGS 1; R.F. Burton, 1859, p. 326.
A. Leue, Tabora, 30 October 1895, RKA 1001/1030-1056.
D. Livingstone, 1874, vol. 2, p. 182.
H.M. Stanley, 1872, p. 267.
P. Reichard, 1892, p. 358.
J.A. Moloney, 1893, p. 67.
L. Fourchard, 2011, p. 224.
J.R. Brennan, 2013, p. 38.
C. Coquery-Vidrovitch, 2005a, p. 19.
B. Freund, 2007, p. 1.
D.M. Anderson, R. Rathbone, 2000, p. 11.
C. Coquery-Vidrovitch, 2005b, p. 18.
For a reconstruction of the events leading to the occupation of Tabora, see K. Pallaver, 2010, p. 120-126.
F. Nolan, 1977, p. 264; before the colonial occupation, European traders had been firmly opposed by the Arab traders and by Nyamwezi political authorities. The French trader Sergère was obliged to go back to the coast, and the German trader Giesecke was even murdered, it seems by an Arab; see N.R. Bennett, 1968, p. 225; P. Hauttecoeur, Kipalapala, 20 May 1886, A.G.M.Afr. C 20-157.
J. Becher, 1997, p. 93.
F. Stuhlmann, 1894, p. 59.
P. Reichard, 1892, p. 34.
A. Leue, Tabora, 30 October 1895, RKA 1001/1030-1056.
Bebaungsplan für den Ort Tabora, Tabora, 12 May 1912, Tanzania National Archives G 7/247; see K. Pallaver, 2010, p. 150-156.
A.T. Creekmore III, K.D. Fischer, 2014, p. 1-31.
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