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Clapperton, H., 1829, Journal of a second expedition into the interior of Africa, from the Bight of Benin to Soccatoo, London, John Murray.
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Rebstock, U. (ed.), 1985, Die Lampe der Brüder (Sirag al-ihwan) von Utman b. Fudi, Walldorf-Hessen, Verlag für Orientkunde.
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Studies
Abraham, R.C., Kano, M.M., 1949, Dictionary of the Hausa language, London, The Crown Agents for the Colonies, on behalf of the Government of Nigeria.
Ado-Kurawa, I., Zangi ibn Salih, M., 1989, The Jihad in Kano, Kano, Kurawa Holdings.
Balogun, S.A., 1973, “Succession tradition in Gwandu history, 1817–1918”, Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, 7 (1), p. 17-33.
Bargery, G.P., 1934, A Hausa-English Dictionary and English-Hausa Vocabulary. Compiled for the Government of Nigeria, London, Oxford University Press.
Chabbi, J., Rabbat, N., 1995. “Ribāṭ” in Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, vol. 8, Leiden, Brill, p. 493-506.
Dalby, D., 1964, “The noun garii in Hausa. A semantic study”, Journal of African Languages, 3 (3), p. 273-305.
Dantiye, N.I., 1985, A study of the origins, status and defensive role of four Kano frontier strongholds (ribāṭs) in the Emirate Period (1809–1903), PhD dissertation, Indiana University.
DeLancey, M.D., 2005, “Moving east, facing west. Islam as an intercultural mediator in urban planning in the Sokoto Empire”, in T. Falola, S.J. Salm (eds.), African urban spaces in historical perspective, Rochester, University of Rochester Press, p. 3-21.
DeLancey, M.D., 2012, “Between mosque and palace”, Cahiers d’études africaines, 208, p. 975-998. URL: http://journals.openedition.org/etudesafricaines/17216.
DeLancey, M.D., 2014, “Localizing Fulbe architecture”, Islamic Africa, 5 (1), p. 1-43.
Dmochowski, Z.R., 1990, An introduction to Nigerian traditional architecture, vol. 1, Northern Nigeria, Lagos, Ethnographica.
Hakim, B.S., Ahmed, Z., 2006, “Rules for the built environment in 19th Century Northern Nigeria”, Journal of Architectural and Planning Research, 23 (1), p. 1-26.
Hakim, B.S., Ahmed, Z., 2008, “The Sub-Saharan city. Rules and built form”, in S.K. Jayyusi, R. Holod, A. Petruccioli, A. Raymond (eds.), The city in the Islamic world, vol. 1, Leiden, Brill, p. 663-676.
Holbrook, D., 2010, “Using the Qur’an to justify terrorist violence. Analysing selective application of the Qur’an in English-language militant Islamist discourse”, Perspectives on Terrorism, 4 (3), p. 15-28.
Hunwick, J.O. (ed.), 1995, The writings of Central Sudanic Africa (=Arabic Literature of Africa, vol. 2), Leiden, Brill.
Huysecom, E., 1991, “Preliminary report on excavations at Hamdallahi, inland Niger Delta of Mali (February/March and October/November 1989)”, Nyame Akuma. Bulletin of the Society of Africanist Archaeologists, 35, p. 24-28.
Last, M., 1967, The Sokoto Caliphate, New York, Humanities Press.
Last, M., 2013, “Contradictions in creating a Jihadi capital. Sokoto in the nineteenth century and its legacy”, African Studies Review, 56 (2), p. 1-20.
Lockhart, J.B., Lovejoy, P. (eds.), 2005, Hugh Clapperton into the Interior of Africa. Record of the Second Expedition 1825–1827, Leiden, Brill.
Lovejoy, P., 1979, “The characteristics of plantations in the nineteenth-century Sokoto Caliphate (Islamic West Africa)”, American Historical Review, 84 (5), p. 1267-1292.
Moughtin, J.C., 1964, “The traditional settlements of the Hausa people”, The Town Planning Review, 35 (1), p. 21-34.
Moughtin, J.C., 1985, Hausa architecture, London, Barber Press.
Newman, P., 2007, A Hausa-English dictionary, New Haven, Yale University Press.
Nobili, M., 2016, “A propaganda document in support of the 19th century Caliphate of Ḥamdallāhi: Nūḥ b. al-Ṭāhir al-Fulānī’s ‘Letter on the appearance of the twelfth caliph’ (Risāla fī ẓuhūr al-khalīfa al-thānī ʻashar)”, Afriques, 7, DOI: 10.4000/afriques.1922.
Ogunbiyi, I.A. (ed.), 1993, The Arabic Writings of Nana Asmāʼ. Daughter of Shehu Uthman Dan Fodio, n.p.
Osswald, R. (ed.), 1986, Das Sokoto-Kalifat und seine ethnischen Grundlagen. Eine Untersuchung zum Aufstand des Abd As-Salaam, Beirut, Franz Steiner.
Philips, J.E., 1992, Ribats in the Sokoto Caliphate. Selected studies 1804–1903, PhD dissertation, Los Angeles, University of California.
Philips, J.E., 1994, “Dalilin da ya sa Sarkin Musulmi Bello ya k’arfafa zaman ribad’I”, in Gaskiya ta fi Kwabo, p. 6, March 31, http://human.cc.hirosaki-u.ac.jp/philips/Ribats.htm.
Philips, J.E., 2000, “Slavery on two Ribat in Kano and Sokoto”, in P. Lovejoy (ed.), Slavery on the frontiers of Islam, Princeton, Markus Wiener, p. 111-124.
Philips, J.E., 2004, “The persistence of slave officials in the Sokoto Caliphate”, in M. Toru, E. Philips (ed.), Slave elites in the Middle East and Africa. A comparative study, London, Kegan Paul International, p. 215-234.
Philips, J.E., 2016, Black Africa’s largest Islamic kingdom. Royal ribats of Kano and Sokoto, Northridge, New World African Press.
Philips, J.E., 2017, “Causes of the Jihad of Usman Ɗan Fodio. A historiographical review”, Journal for Islamic Studies, 36, p. 18-58.
Picton, J., 2006, “Keeping the faith. Islam and West African art history in the nineteenth century”, in D. Behrens-Abouseif, S. Vernoit (ed.), Islamic art in the 19th century. Tradition, innovation, and eclecticism, Leiden, Brill, p. 191-217.
Prussin, L., 1986, Hatumere. Islamic design in West Africa, London, University of California Press.
Robinson, C.H., 1925 [1899], Dictionary of the Hausa language, vol. 1, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
Robinson, D., 2000, “Revolutions in the Western Sudan”, in N. Levtzion, R. Pouwels (eds.), The history of Islam in Africa, Athens, Ohio University Press, p. 131-152.
Ross, E., 2006, Sufi city. Urban design and archetypes in Touba, Rochester, University of Rochester Press.
Sa’ad, H.T., 1985, “The role of individual creativity in traditional African art. The Gwani (genius) amongst master builders of Hausaland”, Nigeria Magazine 54 (4), p. 3-16.
Salau, M.B., 2011, The West African slave plantation. A case study, New York, Palgrave Macmillan.
Schwerdtfeger, F.W., 2007, Hausa urban art and its social background. External house decorations in a Northern Nigerian City, Berlin, Lit.
Silverstein, A.J., 2012, Islamische Geschichte, Stuttgart, Reclam.
Surun, I., Lefebvre, C., 2008, “Exploration et transferts de savoir. Deux cartes produites par des Africains au début du xixe siècle”, Mappemonde, 92, p. 1-24.
Tyan, E., 1965, “Djihad”, in B. Lewis et al. (eds.), Encyclopaedia of Islam. New edition, vol. 2, C–G, Leiden, Brill, p. 538-540.
Yusuf, A.B., 1974, “A reconsideration of urban conceptions. Hausa urbanization and the Hausa rural-urban continuum”, Urban Anthropology, 3(2), p. 200-221.
Zahradeen, M.S., 1976, Abd Allah ibn Fodio’s contributions to the Fulani Jihad in nineteenth century Hausaland, PhD dissertation, Montreal, McGill University.
Zehnle, S., 2016, “War and wilderness. The Sokoto Jihad and its animal discourse”, Critical African Studies, 8 (2), p. 216-237.
Zehnle, S., 2018. “‘Where is my region?’ Geographical representation and textuality in Sokoto”, Islamic Africa, 9 (1), p. 10-33.
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Notes
For the translation as “town” see G.P. Bargery, 1934, p. 367; R.C. Abraham, M.M. Kano, 1949, p. 305; and P. Newman, 2007, p. 71. For the meaning as “city” see D. Dalby, 1964, p. 295.
A.B. Yusuf, 1974, p. 209. Yusuf offers a detailed lexical list of Hausa terms for describing and differentiating within the rural–urban continuum.
Another semiotic use of ribāt is to address Sufi residences, from which the term “Marabout” has derived. But this meaning was not picked up by the Sokoto Jihadists.
J. Chabbi, N. Rabbat, 1995, p. 493.
For evidence see for example Abdullah dan Fodio, Ida’ al-nusukh, Northwestern University, Africana Collection, Paden Papers 241, f. 2; for an Arabic edition see M. Hiskett, 1957. See also Uthman dan Fodio quoting from Al-Kastellani’s commentary on the Sahih al-Bukhari with reference to Byzantium in his Tanbih al-ikhwan, Institut de France, 2415/208, f. 2.
Jihad warfare was described in a variety of genres, ranging from jurisprudence to political treatises. See for example Al-Maghili’s Obligations of the Princes in T.H. Baldwin, 1932.
The Hausa term gari was applied only to un-walled towns or settlements. See G.P. Bargery, 1934, p. 367.
J. Boyd, B.B. Mack (eds.), 1997, p. 453. Here, “janibai” is translated as “ribaɗi”, but I suggest that it is an Arabic loanword derived from ǧanba (“bush”).
Manuscript held at Department of History, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria (Nigeria) 12/2–3–4. The text is considered a Sokoto authentic book, but many scholars doubt Bello’s authorship; cf. N.I. Dantiye, 1985, p. x–xi. See also the unpublished dissertation J.E. Philips, 1992. Only a brief version has recently been published in J.E. Philips, 2016. Hunwick, on the other hand, argues in favor of Bello as the author; see J.O. Hunwick (ed.), 1995, p. 123.
Muhammad Bello, Risālat ila Muḥammad Al-ǧaylāni, Institut de Recherches en Sciences Humaines, Niamey/Niger, No. 3046 (former catalogue reference number 1744), p. 4.
J.E. Philips, 2004, p. 111.
M. Last, 2013, p. 4.
J. Picton, 2006, p. 194.
B. Hakim, Z. Ahmed, 2008, p. 676.
E. Ross, 2006, p. 25.
M.D. DeLancey, 2005, p. 4.
M.D. DeLancey, 2005, p. 8. See also DeLancey, 2014.
J.C. Moughtin, 1985, p. 35-36.
M.D. DeLancey, 2005, p. 11.
M.D. DeLancey, 2005, p. 13.
See the map in M. Last, 1967, p. 67.
M. Last, 2013, p. 11.
M. Last, 2013, p. 12.
M. Last, 2013, p. 13
H.T. Sa’ad, 1985, p. 7.
M.D. DeLancey, 2012, ch. 18.
S. Zehnle, 2018.
This has been demonstrated convincingly by I. Surun, C. Lefebvre, 2008.
M. Last, 2013, p. 14.
I. Surun, C. Lefebvre, 2008, p. 14.
For an introduction see D. Robinson, 2000.
An up-to-date discussion of this relationship is given by M. Nobili, 2016.
H. Clapperton, 1829, p. 329, 331.
For an elaborate discussion see S. Zehnle, 2018.
U. Rebstock, 1985, p. 99.
See the edited text in U. Rebstock, p. ٤.
See the translation by I. Ado-Kurawa, 1989, p. 46.
H. Clapperton, D. Denham, W. Oudney, 1826, vol. 2, p. 322-323.
H. Clapperton, D. Denham, W. Oudney, 1826, vol. 2, p. 323.
E. Huysecom, 1991, p. 24.
L. Prussin, 1986, p. 215.
L. Prussin, 1986, p. 215.
J. Picton, 2006, p. 202.
J. Picton, 2006, p. 202.
See for example J. Picton, 2006, p. 219-220.
H. Clapperton, D. Denham, W. Oudney, 1826, vol. 2, p. 294.
L. Prussin, 1986, p. 215.
J.C. Moughtin, 1964, p. 29.
J. Picton, 2006, p. 201.
See for example Z.R. Dmochowski, 1990, p. 216.
H. Clapperton, D. Denham, W. Oudney, 1826, vol. 2, p. 324.
H. Clapperton, D. Denham, W. Oudney, 1826, vol. 2, p. 325.
F.W. Schwerdtfeger, 2007, p. 111.
H. Barth, 1858, vol. 4, p. 179.
S.A. Balogun, 1973, p. 26.
M. Last, 2013, p. 9.
M. Last, 2013, p. 9.
On the Sokoto concept of wilderness see S. Zehnle, 2016.
Muhammad Bello, Risālat ila Muḥammad Al-ǧaylāni, f. 6.
A.J. Silverstein, 2012, p. 23.
Nana Asmau, Begore, School for Oriental and African Studies (London), Jean Boyd PP MS 36, A70–A72, vol. 3, p. 120 (p. 93–135).
E. Tyan, 1965, p. 539.
See for example M. Hiskett (ed.), 1960, p. 570.
Jean Boyd, “Mission Tilho”, SOAS, Jean Boyd PP MS 36, G25, p. 13–17. Boyd refers to extracts from the French Tilho Missions, as well as to oral accounts.
J.E. Philips, 2017, p. 49.
J.E. Philips, 2004, p. 111.
A.B. Yusuf, 1974, p. 210, 206.
M. Last, 2013, p. 10.
D. Dalby, 1964, p. 280, 295.
D. Dalby, 1964, p. 298.
S.J. Hogben, A.H.M. Kirk-Greene,1966, p. 197.
Translated and published in I. Ado-Kurawa, 1989, p. 51.
See for example in I. Ado-Kurawa, 1989, p. 62, 64.
J. Boyd, B.B. Mack (eds.), 1997, p. 32. See also the 19th-century dictionary of C.H. Robinson, 1899, p. 38.
N.I. Dantiye, 1985, p. 31.
J. Boyd, B.B. Mack (eds.), 1997, p. 452.
Nana Asmau, Tabshir al-ikhwan, in I.A. Ogunbiyi (ed.), 1993, p. 91.
J. Boyd, B.B. Mack (eds.), 1997, p. 453.
N.I. Dantiye, 1985, p. 95-96.
J.E. Philips, 2000, p. 226.
J.E. Philips, 2004, p. 113.
J.E. Philips, 2004, p. 119.
From this Arabic word the West African term “marabout” (scholar) is derived. In the Quran, the verb means to “be stationed in a place,” and the noun still refers to the Arabic tribal concept of “a gathered herd of military horses” (Quran 8:60). During Abbasid rule the ribāt came to be known as (a) any fortification and later also as (b) the residences of spiritual Sufi practitioners. Hence both usages refer to jihad—a military or spiritual effort in support of Islam. For an overview see J. Chabbi, N. Rabbat, 1995.
J.E. Philips, 2000, p. 225-226.
See Uthman dan Fodio’s text Masa’il muhimma translated by A. Abdarrahman Bewley (ed.), 2004, p. 88-112. In Hausa language, the term masu zaman ribatsi (“people of the ribāt”) is usually applied. Cf. N.I. Dantiye, 1985, p. 3.
N.I. Dantiye, 1985, p. 100-101.
A Kano trader remembered that Sokoto regularly undertook such expeditions against Kebbi. After defeating Kebbi, Bello returned home and announced: “I will prepare for next year. I tell you, I will return.” Cf. Alhaji Umaru, Sokoto-Kebbi Wars, Staatbibliothek zu Berlin, Krause Collection, Ms. 844, text 29, f. 43. See also the Latin edition in D.A. Olderogge (ed.), 1960, p. 151. See also the German translation in paraphrase by G.A. Krause, 1897, p. 1.
A. Abdarrahman Bewley (ed.), 2004, p. 103-106.
A. Abdarrahman Bewley (ed.), 2004, p. 106-107.
Dantiye had intended to base his study mainly upon this manuscript text by researching on a copy located in Kaduna (AH, 1/15/74), when he reportedly discovered it was not authored by Bello. See N.I. Dantiye, 1985, p. x–xi.
Hakim and Zubair follow Hunwick in this argumentation. See B.S. Hakim, Z. Ahmed, 2006. The two architects published a helpful and substantial list of all Sokoto manuscripts in Arabic on urban management topics (p. 6-7).
In the end, Dantiye relied on sources besides Arabic manuscripts for his four case studies on Sokoto frontier towns, including colonial sources as well as some interviews of the early 1980s. As a result, his study analyzes a later period after Muhammad Bello’s death in 1837: from the 1840s to the 1890s. Dantiye argued for the strategic contribution of the forts to the defense of the Kano Emirate. He studied primarily Rano, Karaye, Gwarzo and Babura, which were established only in the mid-19th century. See N.I. Dantiye, 1985, p. 148.
See also on these intertextual references J.E. Philips’ Hausa online essay of 1994: “Muhammad Bello ya fi sanin tarihin Musulunci ya karanta littattaffai da yawa har ya fahimci irin ribad’in gargajiya a k’asashen Larabawa. Littafin da ya fi so a kan batun ribad’i, shi ne Masharic al-Ashwaq na Ibrahim al-Dimashqi. Bello ya tsakuro littafin a littafinsa mai suna ‘Al-Ribat wa’l-Hirasa’. Za a ga littafin Bello a Jami’ar Ibadan da Jami’ar Ahmadu Bello, Zariya inda aka ajiye littattafan tarihi.” Cf. http://human.cc.hirosaki-u.ac.jp/philips/Ribats.htm. See also B.S. Hakim, Z. Ahmed, 2006, p. 21.
See J.O. Hunwick (ed.), 1995, p. 123. For Ibn Nuḥās’ biography and general influence on jihad discourses of the 20th and 21st centuries, see R. Lohlker, 2009, p. 21-22, and D. Holbrook, 2010.
From Quran 3:200. Quotation from S.A. Al-Fatah Al-Khalidi, n.d., p. 118.
S.A. Al-Fatah Al-Khalidi, n.d., p. 119.
Muhammad Bello, Kitāb al-ribāt wa al-hirāsa, Zaria 12/2–3–4, p. 30, 45-46.
S.A. Al-Fatah Al-Khalidi, n.d., p. 124.
S.A. Al-Fatah Al-Khalidi, n.d., p. 125.
S.A. Al-Fatah Al-Khalidi, n.d., p. 124.
S.A. Al-Fatah Al-Khalidi, n.d., p. 127-128.
The first pages of the Zaria manuscript could not be located by the librarian and I must therefore refer to the quotation in N.I. Dantiye, 1985, p. 16.
Muhammad Bello, Kitāb al-ribāt wa al-hirāsa, p. 18, 31.
Muhammad Bello, Kitāb al-ribāt wa al-hirāsa, p. 41.
N.I. Dantiye, 1985, p. 254.
See the Latin transcription by S. Piłaszewicz, 1981, p. 55, 65.
S.W. Koelle, 1854, p. 213.
See also M. Last, 2013, p. 4.
S.W. Koelle, 1854, p. 238.
H. Clapperton, D. Denham, W. Oudney, vol. 1, 1826, p. 272-273.
Asmau, Yonde Wurno. For an English translation see J. Boyd, B.B. Mack (eds.), 1997, p. 205. The Fulfulde Ajami version is archived at SOAS, Jean Boyd PP MS 36, A70–A72, vol. 2, p. 69, 71.
Ibid.
Ibid., p. 69.
Nana Asmau, Gawakuke maunde, SOAS, Jean Boyd PP MS 36, A70–A72, vol. 2, p. 132-133.
H. Clapperton, 1829, p. 225
M.B. Salau, 2011.
P.E. Lovejoy, 1979, p. 1285.
H. Clapperton, 1829, p. 192.
J.A.M. Tilho (ed.), 1926 [1910], p. 527.
H. Clapperton, 1829, p. 181.
H. Clapperton, 1829, p. 200.
H. Clapperton, 1829, p. 203.
See for example the case of the Kano frontier town Fanisau, some ten miles northeast of Kano, explained by M.B. Salau, 2011, p. 41.
M. Last, 2013, p. 2.
G.A. Krause (ed.), 1895, p. 2.
H. Clapperton, D. Denham, W. Oudney, vol. 2, 1826, p. 335.
The founder of that town also renamed himself from Mikhail to Abdassalaam. See for example M. Last, 2013, p. 9, and R. Osswald, 1986, p. 53.
E.g. “Hamdallahi.”
The German linguist Prietze collected this Hausa poem in Tunis. See R. Prietze, 1916, p. 592.
M. Last, 2013, p. 4.
B.S. Hakim, Z. Ahmed, 2008, p. 669.
See the Arabic edited text in M.S. Zahradeen, 1976, p. 319.
Hakim and Ahmed have recently studied this notion of harīm and explain it as follows: “The third mechanism is harim (the zone surrounding a property or structure), which is necessary for its function, such as pathways and roads, so that other people are prohibited from obstructing or building upon it. The harim also refers to a space surrounding a well that protects it from damage, maintains the well’s integrity, and prevents the pollution of its water. Harim is effective at various levels of the built and natural environments, such as the village or city as a whole, alignment on both sides of rivers, and forests. At the neighborhood level, the term harim signifies the area surrounding clusters of compounds, roads and pathways between them, and access to neighborhood farms.” B.S. Hakim, Z. Ahmed, 2006, p. 4.
B.S. Hakim, Z. Ahmed, 2008, p. 665.
Uthman dan Fodio, Sirāj al-ikhwān, at Bibliothèque nationale de France, Manuscrits arabes 5528, f. 233b (ff. 255-238).
M. Last, 1967, p. 231. Today we can access only Al-Jaylani’s answers from Bellos quotations.
Muhammad Bello, Risālat ila Muḥammad Al-ǧaylāni, f. 1.
Muhammad Bello, Risālat ila Muḥammad Al-ǧaylāni, p. 2.
Muhammad Bello, Risālat ila Muḥammad Al-ǧaylāni, p. 5.
Muhammad Bello, Risālat ila Muḥammad Al-ǧaylāni, p. 4.
Muhammad Bello, Risālat ila Muḥammad Al-ǧaylāni, p. 4.
Muhammad Bello, Risālat ila Muḥammad Al-ǧaylāni, p. 5.
M. Last, 1967, p. 80.
H. Clapperton, D. Denham, W. Oudney, 1826, vol. 2, p. 335.
M. Last, 2013, p. 3.
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