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Notes
In this article, I have adopted the name Mafikeng over Mafeking and Mahikeng because it defines more accurately the historical settlement of the boora Tshidi which is the specific part of the contemporary city referred to in the article. It also follows more closely the use of the term by Seetsele Modiri Molema. Note that the settlement of the boora Tshidi has also been called colloquially “the Stadt” by its inhabitants, including notably Solomon Tshekisho Plaatje. S. Parnell, 1986, p. 203-210; J. Comaroff, 1976 [1973].
S.M. Molema, 1920.
“The University of Glasgow Story: Molema Building”. https://universitystory.gla.ac.uk/building/?id=45 (last accessed 27 February 2023); “Silas [sic] Modiri Molema” https://universitystory.gla.ac.uk/biography/?id=WH24165&type=P&o=&start=0&max=20&l= (last accessed 28 February 2023); “John Walter Gregory”. https://www.internationalstory.gla.ac.uk/person/?id=WH0194 (last accessed 28 February 2023). Note that Molema’s name was Seetsele; Silas was his father’s name.
S.M. Molema, 1987 [1951]; S.M. Molema, 1966; S.M. Molema, n.d. [c.1940-1965].
In this article I follow the critique of the term “precolonial” proposed by, among others, Cynthia Kros, John Wright, Mbongiseni Buthelezi, and Helen Ludlow. Although imprecise, the terms “deep history” and “deep past” which are here opted for have at least the qualities of not being teleologic and of not centring African history around the short episode of European colonialism. C. Kros, J. Wright, M. Buthelezi, H. Ludlow, 2022, p. 3-23, 16.
J.V. Starfield, 2001, p. 479-503; J.V. Starfield, 2012a; J.V. Starfield, 2012b, p. 434-449; J.V. Starfield, 2015, p. 76-102.
Starfield decided to focus only on The Bantu but was well aware of the later books, Moroka and Montshiwa, and of other “fascinating unpublished works” of his. J.V. Starfield, 2012a, p. 370.
C. Saunders, 1988, p. 105-110.
S.M. Molema, 1920.
S.M. Molema, p. 230; E. Gibbon, 2005 [1776-1781], p. 230-240.
J.V. Starfield, 2012b, p. 436, 443, 445; S.M. Molema, 1920, viii.
For a critical reading of other African intellectuals using this practice, see H. Mokoena, 2005, p. 126-127. See also C. Ellis, T.E. Adams, A.P. Bochner, 2011, p. 273-290.
J.V. Starfield, 2012a, p. 368.
The most recent works are C. Broodryk (ed.), 2021; C. Kros, J. Wright, M. Buthelezi, H. Ludlow (eds.), 2022.
V.J. Collins-Buthelezi, 2016, p. 115-132. I would like to thank Katleho Kano Shoro for pointing out this article to me.
V. Bickford-Smith, 1995, p. 443-465; V. Bickford-Smith, 2004, p. 194-227; V. Bickford-Smith, 2011, p. 74-97.
A selection of her works includes H. Mokoena, 2005; H. Mokoena, 2011; H. Mokoena, 2022, p. 63-75.
S. Rosenberg, R.F. Weisfelder, M. Frisbie-Fulton, 2004, p. 37-40; R.F. Weisfelder, 1974, p. 397-409; E. Morelli, 2022, p. 89-118. Lesley Mofokeng has found the Setswana term batlhalefi being used for the intellectuals of Mafikeng, in the circle of Silas Molema and Sol Plaatje. Personal communication, 3 March 2023.
C. Kros, J. Wright, 2022, p. 48-59.
H. Mokoena, 2005, p. 29, 101-112; H. Mokoena, 2022, p. 73.
P. La Hausse de Lalouvière, 2009, p. 50, 55.
N. Mkhize, 2018, p. 92-111. On the mfecane, see C. Hamilton (ed.), 1995.
J. Peires, 1979, p. 155-175.
D.R. Peterson, G. Macola, 2009, p. 1-30, 3.
D.R. Peterson, G. Macola, 2009, p. 6.
D.R. Peterson, G. Macola, 2009, p. 11-12.
The Setswana kgosi is often translated as ‘chief’ or, before colonialism, ‘king’. ‘Ruler’ could be a more neutral solution.
S.M. Molema, 1966, p. 8-10.
It has become standard academic practice to refer to Mzilikazi’s people as Ndebele or amaNdebele, despite the absence of evidence pointing towards their own use of such identity. Ndebele is indeed a neologism formed by applying isiZulu norms to a Sesotho and Setswana term which was used for invaders from the east, Matabele or Matebele. Mzilikazi himself was of the Khumalo family, he referred to his domain as ‘Zulu’, and he effectively ruled over a mostly Setswana-speaking community between the early 1820s and 1837. P. Landau, 2010, p. 35, 37, 64.
I have opted for the term ‘city’ to refer to Thaba ‘Nchu following two sets of considerations. Firstly, several archaeologists are now shifting to consider ‘Tswana’ settlements as urban spaces, contrary to older interpretations which explicitly denied it. Secondly, the Barolong themselves seem to have adopted this interpretation more than a hundred years ago when donning the Dutch term stadt, ‘city’, for Mafikeng—by no means the largest settlement ever built in the southern African interior. It should be noted that the Setswana term for such a settlement, motse, is identical to the Sesotho term, despite settlements in the areas where the latter language was spoken being usually much smaller and being traditionally referred to as ‘villages’ in English. I would like to thank an anonymous reviewer for asking to elaborate on this. P.J. Lane, 2004, p. 269-299; K. Sadr, 2019a, p. 1-22; K. Sadr, 2019b, p. 56-62; K. Sadr, 2020; J. Iliffe, 2009 [1987], p. 79-80; P. Mitchell, G. Whitelaw, 2005, p. 209-241, 228-229; B. Freund, 2011, p. 4-5.
S.M. Molema, 1966, p. 33-34.
S.M. Molema, 1966, p. 35-36; S.M. Molema, 1987 [1951], p. 59.
S.M. Molema, 1966, p. 52-53; K. Shillington, 1985, p. 126.
S.M. Molema, 1966, p. 77-97.
K. Shillington, 1985, p. 129-131. It might seem strange, at first, that kgosi Montshiwa needed an invitation from his subordinate Molema to settle anywhere within his own territory. This is explained by Seetsele Modiri Molema in Montshiwa as the result of two ‘maxims’: ‘Tlou ya mmadi’ or ‘ownership to him who pegs first’; and avoidance ‘to warm yourself at the fire kindled by your junior’. Firstly, the founding of a settlement included ceremonies which created an unbreakable spiritual connection with the first founder, preventing others from inhabiting the exact location. Secondly, strict royal hierarchy was based on the precedence of seniors, even when they held less practical power—which was not the case here—the transgression of which would bring ‘degeneration’, as stated in the History of the Barolong. There was also a third reason, mentioned likewise by S.M. Molema in Montshiwa: his own grandfather being older than kgosi Montshiwa, he was suspected of plotting against the legitimate ruler. This case is a clear example of the potential that S.M. Molema’s work has for a more complete understanding of the history of the region, and I would like to thank an anonymous reviewer for suggesting further elaboration on this point. S.M. Molema, 1966, p. 117-118; SOAS Library, M4916, Molema, History of the Barolong, p. 25-26.
S.M. Molema, 1966, p. 116-119.
K. Shillington, 1985, p. 173
J.V. Starfield, 2012a, p. 54-58; K. Moguerane, 2016, p. 244-247.
S. Parnell, 1986, p. 203-210.
D.S. Matjila, K. Haire, 2012, p. 113-115.
S.M. Molema, 1966, p. 115; K. Moguerane, 2016, p. 234-266.
K. Moguerane, 2016, p. 243-244.
K. Moguerane, 2016, p. 247-251.
K. Moguerane, 2016, p. 251-265.
J.V. Starfield, 2012a, p. 100 fn1.
V. Bickford-Smith, 2004, p. 194-227.
J.V. Starfield, 2012a, 100 fn1.
B. Willan, 2018, p. 159-160
J.V. Starfield, 2012a, p. 14-16.
J.V. Starfield, 2012a, p. 104; B. Willan, 2018, p. 342-463.
J.V. Starfield, 2012a, p. 166-167; J. Comaroff, J. Comaroff, 1991, p. 140-141.
J.V. Starfield, 2012a, p. 166.
J.V. Starfield, 2012a, p. 103.
J.V. Starfield, 2012a, p. 172-193.
J.V. Starfield, 2012a, p. 178.
D.S. Matjila, K. Haire, 2012, p. 114. N. Elrank, 2021, p. 8.
D.S. Matjila, K. Haire, 2012, p. 109-110.
J.V. Starfield, 2001, p. 479-503.
C. Rassool, L. Witz, 1993, p. 447-468, 463.
Seetsele Modiri Molema, ‘Opening Address’, Annual Conference of the South African Indian Congress, 25 January 1952, available online https://www.sahistory.org.za/archive/opening-address-annual-conference-south-afri-can-indian-congress-dr-s-m-molema-25-january (last accessed 21 February 2023). Also quoted in C. Rassool, L. Witz, 1993, p. 463.
Seetsele Modiri Molema, ‘Opening Address’, Annual Conference of the South African Indian Congress, 25 January 1952, available online https://www.sahistory.org.za/archive/opening-address-annual-conference-south-afri-can-indian-congress-dr-s-m-molema-25-january (last accessed 21 February 2023). Also quoted in C. Rassool, L. Witz, 1993, p. 463.
J.V. Starfield, 2012b, p. 449. I would like to thank an anonymous reviewer and Arianna Lissoni for bringing clarity to some details of the events of 1952–1953, and for the reference to A. Manson, B. Mbenga, A. Lissoni, 2016, p. 14-17; A.A. Manson, B. Mbenga, 2012, p. 472-497, 473-474.
Wits Historical Papers, Johannesburg, ‘A979: The Silas T. Molema and Solomon T. Plaatje Papers’, Compiled by Marcella Jacobson, 1978. See also M. Jacobson, 1980, p. 224-234.
Z.K. Matthews’ thesis at Yale was titled ‘Bantu Law and Western Civilization in South Africa: A Study in the Clash of Culture’. UNISA Archives, Pretoria, ACC101/A1.19: Matthews ZK Papers/Yale University/Thesis MA 1934. Available online https://uir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/5046 (last accessed 22 December 2023).
UNISA Archives, Pretoria, ACC101/A2/10 and 12: Matthews ZK Papers/Barolong Research/Letter Matthews to Schapera, 30 September 1935 [typed copy, unsigned], and Letter Schapera to ZK Matthews, 8 October 1935. Available online at https://uir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/5212 and https://uir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/5360 (last accessed 22 December 2023).
UNISA Archives, Pretoria, ACC101/A2/11: Matthews ZK Papers/Barolong Research/Letter Matthews to Molema, 22 September 1935 [typed copy, unsigned]. Available online at https://uir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/5213 (last accessed 22 December 2023).
UNISA Archives, Pretoria, ACC101/A2/11: Letter Matthews to Molema, 22 September 1935. Available online at https://uir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/5213 (last accessed 22 December 2023).
UNISA Archives, Pretoria, ACC101/A2/11: Letter Matthews to Molema, 22 September 1935. Available online at https://uir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/5213 (last accessed 22 December 2023).
UNISA Archives, Pretoria, ACC101/A2/11: Letter Matthews to Molema, 22 September 1935. Available online at https://uir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/5213 (last accessed 22 December 2023).
Underline in original. Since the research was undertaken “under the auspices of the Institute of African Languages and Cultures”, the London-based predecessor to the IAI, the report could be addressed to Bronislaw Malinowski. Isaac Schapera is mentioned in the report and could not be the addressee.
Underline in original. UNISA Archives, Pretoria, ACC101/A2/19: Matthews ZK Papers/Barolong Research/Confidential ‘First quarterly report on field-work among the Barolong of British Bechuanaland’, December 1935-February 1936. Available online at https://uir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/5381 (last accessed 22 February 2023).
UNISA Archives, Pretoria, ACC101/A2/19: Confidential ‘First quarterly report on field-work among the Barolong of British Bechuanaland’, December 1935-February 1936. Available online at https://uir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/5381 (last accessed 22 February 2023).
UNISA Archives, Pretoria, ACC101/A2/21: Matthews ZK Papers/Barolong Research/‘Second Field Work Report’, November 1937–February 1938. Available online at https://uir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/5434 (last accessed 22 February 2023).
Z.K. Matthews, 1937, p. 433-437; Z.K. Matthews, 1940, p. 1-24; Z.K. Matthews, 1945, p. 9-28; Z.K. Matthews, 1954, p. 1-31.
UNISA Archives, Pretoria, ACC101/C2/200: Matthews ZK Papers/Correspondence on Education Matters/Confidential letter ZK Matthews to SM Molema 26 October 1959. Available online at https://uir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/7733 (last accessed 22 February 2023).
UNISA Archives, Pretoria, ACC101/B2/83: Matthews ZK Papers/African National Congress/Letter Vincent Joseph Gaobakwe ‘Bakwe’ to ZK Matthews 2 October 1952. Available online at https://uir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/5915 (last accessed 22 February 2023).
S.M. Molema, 1945. A copy in UNISA Archives, Pretoria, ACC101/A2/47: Matthews ZK Papers/Barolong Research/Chief Lotlamoreng Montshiwa.
C. Saunders, 1988, p. 108.
S.M. Molema, 1987 [1951], p. 196-200.
S.M. Molema, 1987 [1951], p. 198.
Seetsele Modiri Molema, ‘Opening Address’, Annual Conference of the South African Indian Congress, 25 January 1952, available online https://www.sahistory.org.za/archive/opening-address-annual-conference-south-afri-can-indian-congress-dr-s-m-molema-25-january (last accessed 21 February 2023). Also quoted in C. Rassool, L. Witz, 1993, p. 463.
J.V. Starfield, 2012a, p. 279 n307; S.M. Molema, 1987 [1951], p. 204.
S.M. Molema, 1987 [1951], p. 206.
S.M. Molema, 1987 [1951], p. 206.
S.M. Molema, 1987 [1951], p. 46-52.
S.M. Molema, 1987 [1951], p. 46, 52.
S.M. Molema, 1987 [1951], p. 46-52.
S.M. Molema, 1987 [1951], p. 46.
N. Etherington, 2001, p. 250, 252.
S.M. Molema, 1966, ‘In Memoriam’ and ‘Publisher’s note’.
S.M. Molema, 1966, p. 201.
On Molema’s ‘provincialising’ Europe, see J.V. Starfield, 2012b, p. 440-441.
S.M. Molema, 1966, p. 4.
On mophato, see F. Morton, 2012, p. 385-397.
P.G. Alcock, 2014, p. 180, 191; S.M. Molema, 1966, p. 10.
S.M. Molema, 2022.
D.S. Matjila, K. Haire, 2012, p. 110.
S.M. Molema, 1966, ‘By Same Author’, page following the frontispiece.
Wits Historical Papers, Johannesburg, A979, Ad: Silas Thelensho Molema and Solomon Tshekisho Plaatje Papers, Seetsele Modiri Molema; UNISA, Pretoria, ACC142; M842; AS2186/N, ANC papers.
J.V. Starfield, 2012a, p. 377-378.
Brian Willan, personal communication, 3 March 2023.
M. Jacobson, 1980, p. 224.
SOAS Archives, London, GB 102, MS 380268, Papers of Silas Modiri Molema; MS 375495, Papers of Solomon Tshekisho Plaatje. Note the mistake in naming Modiri Silas instead of Seetsele, as already mentioned.
The SOAS Archives catalogue was, during the last phase of the research, offline. Such description is also reported verbatim on Archiveshub, together with a relatively detailed overview of the collection. Available online at https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/search/archives/19c8c4ac-5757-3fa3-8d83-1b5c6059fed4?terms=molema (last accessed 24 February 2023).
J. Comaroff (ed.) 1976 [1973]. Brian Willan and John Comaroff, personal communications, 3 March and 2 March 2023.
Information available online at https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/search/archives/d8a769d4-03e2-3225-9dc1-b13263c03929?terms=plaatje (last accessed 24 February 2023). Confirmed by Brian Willan, personal communication, 3 March 2023.
Molema’s The Scapegoat undoubtedly deserves more attention, but it was not analysed during the research for the present article. I would like to thank Brian Willan for raising this point and for suggesting to devote more efforts to it in the future.
SOAS, GB 102, MS 380268, “Batlhaping” in green OK Exercise Book.
SOAS Archives, MS 380268, Papers of Silas Modiri Molema, loose sheets on the Barolong.
SOAS, GB 102, MS 380268, “Barolong: A Historical and Ethnographical Study of the Barolong People and Bechuanaland” in red cloth damaged notebook.
Wits Historical Papers, Johannesburg, A979, Ad6.1: http://historicalpapers-atom.wits.ac.za/history-of-barolong-ethnological-and-historical-survey-study-of-barolong-tribes-538f-various-pagination-typescript-with-manuscript-corrections (last accessed 25 February 2023). As mentioned below, the digital version of this draft is not arranged by order of pagination. What appears to be the frontispiece is digitally archived as Ad6.1.5 - Folder 5, A979-Ad6-1-5-01-jpeg.pdf, p. 17 of the pdf file, http://historicalpapers-atom.wits.ac.za/a979-ad6-1-5-01-jpeg-pdf (last accessed 22 December 2023).
SOAS Library, M4916, “Papers relating to the Barolong tribe: including a history based on notes by S.M. Molema, letter books and correspondence of Chief Montshiwa, and miscellaneous material on boundary disputes”, metadata available at https://library.soas.ac.uk/Record/570567#notes (last accessed 28 February 2023). This microfilm was only mentioned by Shillington, who consulted it and the original papers while being microfilmed in the 1970s. K. Shillington, 1985, p. 271. John Comaroff specified that none of Molema’s or Plaatje’s papers ever belonged to him, but were only entrusted to him by members of the Molema family who were looking for an institutional deposit. John Comaroff, personal communication, 2 March 2023.
SOAS Library, M4916, “Baralong Tribal Papers. History of the Barolong. An Ethnological Study of the Barolong Tribes”’, henceforth: History of the Barolong, p. 21.
John Comaroff and Brian Willan, personal communications, 2 and 3 March 2023.
UNISA Archives, Pretoria, ACC101/A2/19: Confidential ‘First quarterly report on field-work among the Barolong of British Bechuanaland’, December 1935-February 1936. Available online at https://uir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/5381 (last accessed 22 February 2023).
SOAS Library, M4916, Molema, History of the Barolong, “Seleka”, p. 8.
J. Peires, 1979, p. 159.
SOAS Library, M4916, Molema, History of the Barolong, “Seleka”, p. 1, 13-14; S.M. Molema, 1987 [1951], p. 3, 37-40.
SOAS Library, M4916, Molema, History of the Barolong, “Chapter 3”, “section on the Ratlou Branch of the Barolong”, p. 15.
SOAS Library, M4916, Molema, History of the Barolong, “section on the Ratlou Branch of the Barolong”, p. 11.
SOAS Library, M4916, Molema, History of the Barolong, “Seleka”, p. 2.
SOAS Library, M4916, Molema, History of the Barolong, “Mariba Ratlou”, p. 7.
S.M. Molema, 1966, p. 13.
SOAS Archives, MS 380268, “Barolong: A Historical and Ethnographical Study of the Barolong People and Bechuanaland” in red cloth damaged notebook.
S.M. Molema, 1987 [1951], p. 206.
SOAS Library, M4916, Molema, History of the Barolong, p. 19.
SOAS Library, M4916, Molema, History of the Barolong, p. 24.
SOAS Library, M4916, Molema, History of the Barolong, p. 24.
SOAS Library, M4916, Molema, History of the Barolong, p. 43.
SOAS Library, M4916, Molema, History of the Barolong, p. 28-30.
SOAS Library, M4916, Molema, History of the Barolong, p. 30.
SOAS Library, M4916, Molema, History of the Barolong, p. 38.
SOAS Library, M4916, Molema, History of the Barolong, p. 37.
SOAS Library, M4916, Molema, History of the Barolong, p. 47.
L. Chewins, 2016, p. 725-741; Brenthurst Library, Johannesburg, Robert Jacob Gordon Papers, MS 107/10/11/002, accessed through the online scans collected and organised by the Rijksmuseum of Amsterdam, “Untranscribed Manuscripts/Linguistic Notes”, https://www.robertjacobgordon.nl/writings-and-drawings (last accessed 13 March 2022); MS 107/3/1-2, “Fourth Journey”, 6 November 1779, https://www.robertjacobgordon.nl/travel-journals/fourth-journey/6th-november-1779 (last accessed 13 March 2023).
Z.K. Matthews, 1940; Z.K. Matthews, 1945; Z.K. Matthews, 1954.
M. Legassick, 1969, p. 86-125, 115; M. Legassick, 2010 [1969], p. 29.
Jean Comaroff, 1985, p. 19.
F. Morton, J. Boeyens, 2022, p. 88-103; Jean Comaroff, 1985, p. 19; M. Legassick, 1969, p. 115 fn82.
N. Etherington, 2001, p. 28.
P.S. Landau, 2010.
SOAS Library, M4916, Molema, History of the Barolong, p. 30-31.
It is possible but at the present state unproven that Molema read Vansina in French, at least for his Montshiwa. The first English edition of Oral Tradition came out in 1965.
Molema’s obituary, 13 August 1965, The Star, reproduced in S.M. Molema, 1966.
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