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Narratives of migration, a reader of the foundations of identity

Rodrigo Pardo Fernández

Résumés

North America’s migration (in the territory comprised between Mexico to the south and Canada to the north of the continent) is a living phenomenon that, beyond numbers, involves people and their circumstances. In this sense, different narrative expressions contribute to the understanding of this and other associated processes, through the construction of characters and the development of plots that reflect, from various perspectives, on identity. Beyond its facets and contradictions, identity is a set of choices that become relevant (emerge) in different social contexts. This work proposes a comparative analysis of different narrative proposals, within the framework of the migratory process and its parameters: vulnerability, adverse conditions at the origin, transit and destination, cultural clash, uprooting and assimilation, systemic violence, among others. In a review that ranges from testimonial novel to crime novel, through sequential art proposals, the aim is to reflect on how narratives recreate and question both migration in North America and its various social aspects, in terms of individuals and collectives.

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Texte intégral

Introduction

1Migration can be understood as a series of live processes involving specific persons that move from, through, and towards particular territories. In the context of the narratives modelling this frontier (the Border) we find the academic perspective, which seeks to understand, explain, and define said border from different disciplinary practices. On the other end, generally far removed from the institutional spaces, we find the set of texts built by those who cross, transgress, use, and incorporate the border into their imaginary. Both communities intend to build meanings out of the migratory experience, in all its inherent complexity and contradiction.

2 Insofar as they are opposed in many ways, both views are, in the end, quite risky. On the one hand, those who offer a direct testimony do not usually have a perspective of the phenomenon (Langley, 1994; Martínez, 1976); moreover, most of the time their discourse is mediated (validated and therefore distorted) by an academic, political, or mixed view that goes beyond the parameters of the mediating subject.

3 On the other hand, those who talk about migration from behind a desk or based only on documentary data, with no previous contact whatsoever with migrants, their context, the people who remain in the communities of origin, the geography where migrants move, among other first-hand sources, are incapable of thinking or, above all, adequately measuring the scope, complexities, and the personal and collective transcendence of migration.

4 It is at this point where trans- and interdisciplinary efforts meet, in the understanding that, in the end, they both intend to build a panoptic view of migration: in Mexico, from Mexico, through Mexico, so that before long we can bring to light and acknowledge migrants and their circumstances in all their dimensions. This implies examining the status quo, where large-scale public policies have been formulated that tend to perpetuate migration as a form of escape and remittances as a source of income for the country (2.3% of the GDP, De Vasconcelos et al., 2017, p. 28). Every disciplinary contribution regarding migration, from any field and with any perspective or scope, helps us understand a reality experienced by many that challenges us to conceive it in its global dimension (Delgado Wise, 2014), where every individual is significant. However, at the same time, we must not lose sight of the horizon.

Narratives of migration: an approach

5Migration is a process of loss, but also (in a contradictory manner) of strengthening the foundations of identity (Rodríguez, 2005). It therefore entails an abandonment and, at the same time, a finding, a two-way learning process, and a forced reconfiguration of our being-in-the-world.

6When one studies the practice of migration, migrants become flesh and blood beings, instead of mere statistic data or sensationalist news on TV. It is thus that the transcendent, tangible meaning of the research on migration issues takes shape, especially in relation to processes that, from the standpoint of sociology, psychology, law, literary studies, and many other disciplines, become not only relevant, but also indispensable objects and subjects of study that will allow a deeper understanding of said issues.

7The vital and literary experience of crossing the border, and of life in the border, translates into a group of works and authors whose importance cannot be ignored, and is closely linked to other narrative experiences of people who inhabit border territories.

  • 1 The language of the original works, written either in Spanish, English or a mixture of Spanish and (...)

8Let us remember that every «migration streams […] have been conditioned by immigration policies that serve as a filter between the desire to migrate and the actual moves that take place» (Hatton & Williamson, 2003, p. 18). A character, Raúl, arrives in California escaping from himself, not strictly and solely of poverty, but also of an existential void that he does not know how to fill. Though not explicitly mentioned, an official program such as Paisano facilitates and fosters his task: if we consider how important remittances from the US are to keep our economy afloat, we will appreciate the value given by the Mexican State to forced, illegal migration, another type of exile (Chávez Campos, 2007, p. 127). Mario Chávez Campos states the following:1

Y es que el exilio no es otra cosa. De lo que se trata es de autocompadecerse y dejar que la nostalgia se apodere de los sentidos. [] [a pesar de sus esfuerzos por asimilarse a la población estadounidense] siguen siendo migrantes ilegales. Y aunque tengan papeles el status queda. Son ciudadanos de tercera en un mundo para blancos. Lo que ellos creen que dejaron atrás en México es nomás lo que imaginan. Todo son espejismos. Ni saben qué dejaron, ni qué están ganando. Pinche argumento cancionero: No soy de aquí ni soy de allá. (2007, pp. 127-130)

9In the end, migration is the root, the origin, the zeal of constituting (discovering, recovering) the identity. The choices of identities, which refer to relevant traits in specific contexts chosen or enabled by people, become even more complex at the border due to the tensions of the area in political and linguistic terms, to mention only two of the elements that meet on an arbitrary line that establishes differentiated spaces, but that cannot solve historical situations and constantly changing processes. Due to its overly complex processes and manifestations, I set aside the issue of religion at the border; however, in no way do I belittle its relevance and the way in which it underlies the perspectives of inequality between Mexico and the US (about the differences in religious identity at the border, the contrast between the catholic and protestant views between North and South, see Hurd, 2022; Vila, 2007). Moreover, regarding identities in this specific territory,

[…] people at the border widely use social categories and interjections to understand who they are and who “the others” are.

[…] the border offers a unique opportunity to observe the complex process of identity building and the permanent use of classification systems that give meaning to people’s social identities. (Vila, 2004, pp. 45-46)

10Chávez Campos’s tale is based on the idea of uprooting, a recurrent situation in most migration narratives, and belongs in the context of this border’s model as an arbitrary territorial division. The organization of space and the establishment of a place of one’s own (both individual and collective) occur both in concrete reality and in the imaginary. However, the border identity is more complex than a mere longing or lack of footing; it also involves the complexity of dualities, of belonging based on choices, origins, and life histories. The following text, taken from the comic Border Town (2018), can be read in this vein:

“Oh, and… I’m half Mexican” [Frank said].

“No you’re not” [Julietta said]. “I am. I know I don’t like it, ‘cause my mom’s Irish, but my biological father is supposed to be […]” [Frank said]

“You’re not ‘half’ Mexican and ‘half’ Irish. That makes you sound like the world’s shittiest centaur. You’re Mexican. And you’re Irish. And you’re American. All three fully, and all three simultaneously. Three hundred percent” [Julietta said]. (Esquivel et al., 2018, p. 10)

11Julietta’s approach is clear: identity is not built based on fragments, but rather based on the sum of wholes that become relevant in different contexts, which are simultaneously complete and meaningful for those who inhabit a foreign territory, on the other side. When crossing the border, displaced people and migrants of different provenance (by origin, language, culture, or choice) create their identity based on assumptions that might seem contradictory but are really complementary. The contrast lies in the different opportunities, desires, resources that one can (or cannot) use, one of the reasons that underlie undocumented migration:

On one side of the border, you have a spoiled, smart-mouthed teenager complaining about taking an air-conditioned drive in a Uhaul to his new home —where he knows for a fact he’ll have free rent and board for the next three years… and on the other, you got kids willing to walk a hundred miles in the blistering desert, […] to get to the same place… really makes you think. (Esquivel et al., 2018: 5)

Violence on the other side of the border mirror

12This section is developed under the premise that this territory (again, the Border) is, in political terms, related to violence and its exertion on the body. For the purposes of this book, I understand the body as a spreading territory that moves in space and time. In addition to its being-in-the-world, the body inhabits and transforms other territories of which it is part and with which it establishes a dialogic relationship. Under this premise, we can claim that:

[…] violence entails a particular intentionality on a subject’s part regarding another; it also entails a particular use of force, which is exerted in physical terms. Here we must emphasize that the different manifestations of violence are exerted on the body; although symbolic or psychological violence might seem intangible, they become concrete in the corporality of someone else. In addition, violence traverses different ways of being named, thought of, exerted, or suffered, as well as the different ways of being fictionalized (Pardo Fernández, 2022, p. 12).

13These expressions of violence, in turn, are part of this border’s model in regard to the territory and its inhabiting bodies. My purpose is to relate, based on a comparative reading, different products or texts (media, supports, and codes) that build narratives of violence associated with the Mexican American border.

14One of my premises is that, within these fictional narratives, a kind of hyperrealism—understood as the extrapolation of violence—is developed. This hyperrealism is presented explicitly and hyperbolically with the intention of making it go beyond mimetic realism and show the artificial character of these transmedia narratives. In its origins, the concept of hyperrealism refers to a pictorial and sculptural movement, particularly spread in Great Britain and the United States from the late 1960s. Its subjects were represented with meticulous and impersonal accuracy and detail. Superrealism and photographic realism (or photorealism) are alternative names for this movement. Hyperrealist sculptors highlight details that generally intend to create a feeling of unreality. Hyperrealism in literature, described in relation to other artistic practices, can be defined as:

[…] a distanced and objective optics, typical of photography. Physiological mobility and sensibility are replaced by the fixity of the mechanical eye, precisely that of the photographic lens […] The hyperrealist artist chooses a detail, an image separated from the urban space, and then fixes it on the painting’s surface. (Argan, 1998, p. 78)

15Hyperrealism in literature (as a brutal aesthetics of violence) has been associated with criminal narrative, as in the case of the Colombian Fernando Vallejo’s work (de los Ángeles Romero, 2021) or the Mexican border writer Carlos Velázquez (Jara & Velázquez, 2021). In Carrillo Canán’s words, in this aesthetic intentionality,

The figurative object produces on the spectator the illusion of an object, of a fact, a situation, an action, etc., and this is produced precisely because of the realism of the figuration that said object is. The more realist the figuration [hyperrealism], the stronger the power of the illusion. (2013, p. 429)

16Various productions about the border, many of them related to the criminal narrative as one of the hyperrealist expressions of gore capitalism (Valencia, 2010), question us, “for, besides reproducing the techniques of realist texts, they force the reader to constantly confront their experience of reality with that of the characters” (Roas, 2001, p. 26). Hyperrealism is thus understood as a network of relationships between fictional narrative and extratextual practices and processes, so that novels tend to seem more real than the narration of facts from the objective world.

17This simulation of realism manifests as an exacerbation of certain aspects that we consider indisputable and recurrent in our everyday life, notably associated with the exercise of violence. Thus, in most texts related to the complexity of the border and its historical conflicts, hyperrealism appears as one of the strategies to configurate the transmedia universe that I have associated with the border.

18In this context, violence is configured in critical and plurisignificant terms, which leads to a comprehension exercise of (transmedia) practices in line with human relationships in the failed and contrived age of globalization. The transmedia narrative that makes the model of the border possible appreciates the latter as one more discourse about the world; however, with this approach I refer to specific texts that make use of hyperbolic possibilities and the transfiguration of imitatio in fiction to reflect on paratextual and extraliterary situations: the border of paper and bits spreads to the territories split by the Border.

19Considering the way in which cultural manifestations associated with the most visible types of violence at this border—violence against women and migrants, drug and arms trafficking—influence the hegemonic culture and its manifestations, it is symptomatic to acknowledge, recover, and explain the ways in which certain practices become trends—fashion even, to a certain extent—in different media, products, and supports that we include in the transmedia universe based on the model of the border.

20In this regard, it would be possible to develop different approaches to specific texts that address concrete issues, both in the space of reality and of fictional texts that recreate worlds that are similar to reality and, at the same time, model it.

Narratives of the edge: the criminal narrative

21The convergences on the constitution of border narratives are based on a complex reality, determined most of the time based on manichaean views that simplify the processes associated with the geopolitical boundaries and the tensions between the border territories and cities located between Mexico and the United States. Besides spatial coincidence, different texts develop an effect of reality, as defined by Barthes (1968), which consists in establishing intra- and extratextual parameters that make us consider the realism of the narrated material, as well as the feasibility of the story happening in the space of the border based on archetypal characters, understood as characters that we recognize in TV series about drug or human trafficking. We thus seem to recognize in these fictions a “recent” moment in the region’s history where topics such as migration and the physical assaults against the characters’ bodies converge.

22Furthermore, said effect of reality is produced by using intertextual links with pop culture, the gore tradition of genre films, and references to the discourse of the media, which praise and nurture only one aspect of the border model, violence, thus belittling its many-sided reality.

23Most of these texts fluctuate between criminal narrative: Gabriel Trujillo Muñoz’s saga assembled in Tijuana City Blues (1999), and the Nitro/Press editions and anthologies; narcoliterature, with Élmer Mendoza’s Zurdo Mendieta series as a referent, and gore as a subgenre associated with the proposal of Hooper’s The Texas Chain Saw Massacre (1974). The three topics I have mentioned have a political background based on the critique of contemporary violence in Mexico regarding organized crime, illegal migration, and drug trafficking, on the one hand, but also on their approach and questioning of the explicit and normalized violence of US and Mexico’s inhabitants since the 19th century in the context of their different origins, on the other hand:

But the idea of the frontier permits the United States to make an appeal to innocence and exceptionalism: while South Africa underwent an invasion and a conquest, the United States had an expanding frontier of democracy, opportunity, and equality.

The term “frontier” blurs the fact of conquest and throws a veil over the similarities between the story of American westward expansion and the planetary story of the expansion of European empires. Whatever meanings historians give the term, in popular culture it carries a persistently happy affect, a tone of adventure, heroism, and even fun very much in contrast with the tough, complicated, and sometimes bloody and brutal realities of conquest. (Limerick, 1994, p. 75)

24It was in the spirit of these “sometimes bloody and brutal realities of conquest” associated with the model of this specific frontier, in the Imanol Caneyada’s novel Tardarás un rato en morir (2012) [It will take you a while to die], the snowy space of Montreal as an inhabited and particular territory, different, recognizable, and acknowledged as otherness when compared to the southern Mexican sun, becomes a metaphor of silence and final destination, references of a quasi-cinematographic tale, reconstruction of criminal fiction and, at the same time, extratextual discourse, fundamental for the development of the plot of two intertwined stories. Two men, a corrupt politician and his eternal assistant, hide in a Canadian hotel while fleeing from a drug dealer whom they have betrayed for money. Outside, in the wintry world, a serial killer plagues a multicultural society for which violence would seem (in terms of a typically novelesque metaphor) a literary, or at least external, matter, where everything is reduced to a brief piece of news on TV.

Apenas fue un comentario de treinta segundos en el noticiero nocturno. Una joven de origen mexicano falleció a las horas de recibir un impacto de bala en el lugar de los hechos. [la recepción del Holiday Inn en Montreal] Mafer Corona, de veinticuatro años, era estudiante de derecho y trabajaba como recepcionista en el hotel donde murió acribillado uno de los hombres más buscados por las autoridades mexicanas y de Estados Unidos. (Caneyada, 2012, p. 181)

25As I already mentioned, this novel is built based on difference: between two countries, cultures, contrasting practices of transborder violence. The detailed analysis of different worldviews, ranging from the political view to the evidence of the dissimilar functioning of the police apparatus and the identity assumption, allows us to recognize the complexity of criminal fiction in this text as a harsh and lucid metaphor of the contemporary globalized societies of the so-called first world. The characteristics of this group of cultural practices would seem, at first sight, to coincide with those of developing countries that must also deal with similar problems such as drug trafficking and migration.

26Therefore, a reality beyond the border is made explicit where, in fictional terms, the displacement of people and the illegal sale of drugs, arms, and persons rise with no solution of continuity as converging and closely bound practices, beyond politically correct perspectives seeking to encase violence in specific cultural geographies. The next fragment makes the contrast (and the convergence) between two scenes visible: the first one starring a killer of a Mexican cartel who has fallen from grace, and the second one showing the (other) daily life of a Montreal policeman a couple of days before his birthday:

Una especie de melancolía. La confirmación final de una posibilidad presente cada minuto desde el primer gramo vendido, desde el primer alijo contrabandeado, desde el primer fulano al que se le mete un tiro en la frente. En formación de ataque, los uniformados avanzaron hacia Ezequiel. Percibió el miedo en sus ojos, el ruego de que no fuera a sacar el cuerno de chivo de debajo del asiento con la intención de llevarse a dos o tres por delante antes de que le reventaran los sesos. []

Mais cest inutile, demain jy pars.

Sí, es inútil, pienso. Ve a disfrutar de tu mundo inmaculado donde los cadáveres son una página en el periódico que puedes pasar al instante. Se marcha sin beso de despedida. Antes de azotar la puerta, me anuncia a gritos que tengo una semana para pensar qué es lo que quiero realmente de esta relación.

No está nada mal como tarea. (Caneyada, 2012, pp. 69, 80)

27Coinciding with Walter Mignolo’s statement, what becomes evident is “the need to think beyond the linearity of the sociohistorical cartography of Western modernity” (2013: 9), and to critically appreciate, in certain narrative texts, the way in which said thought, allegedly logical and conformed to strict parameters, becomes blurry in the context of a contradictory, amorphous reality that seeks, with little success, to perpetuate the status quo.

28However, unlike Afghanistan or Colombia, to mention two countries that have been particularly identified as drug producers during the past decades, with the development of a culture associated to its production, distribution, and sale (internal and external), in the case of Mexico, history itself sets the guidelines of a tradition that facilitates, to a certain extent, the development of an illegal industry.

29Starting from the Prehispanic society (theocratic, unequal per se), the colonial period (that gave continuity and nuanced said unequal organization), the complex and contradictory national projects (failed, in any case) and, chiefly, the relationship with the United States, with whom Mexico shares both the expanded model and the concretion of the most crossed border in the world, both by people and merchandise, sociocultural practices have enabled a peculiar reality that is perpetuated based on various vested interests and an inertia that does not seem able to stop.

30With this background, Mexican politics becomes the dark side and the exotic referent in the context of Caneyada’s narration as opposed to the (fragile, apparent) normality of the Canadian space that, in turn, must face its own demons:

Sé que detrás de la insoportable civilidad canadiense y sus leyes de equidad, hay un batallón de hombres con un bat de beisbol en las manos. Como aquel pobre diablo que, en la barra del Kilomètre Zéro, murmuraba al contemplar las evoluciones de la bellísima cantinera: Y luego se preguntan por qué las matan. (Caneyada, 2012, p. 144)

31This is the result of a society, the Canadian society, that in the novel chooses to look the other way when its model citizens’ violence comes to light, based on its own idealized construction in contrast to the negative image of the other two American countries of the northern hemisphere, the United States and Mexico, again beyond the border. In the case of Mexico, the black legend is not far from reality: “plain and simple impunity, understood as a crime without punishment, would reach around 99 % in México. That is, less than 1 % of crimes in Mexico are punished” (Le Clercq Ortega & Rodríguez Sánchez Lara, 2016, p. 13). The fact that this negative appreciation, that is part of a preconfigured model, is validated by facts or, in other words, by the ineffectiveness and inaction of the Mexican State regarding this crucial problem is meaningful in terms of the trust in institutions, the prevalence of corruption, and the illegality of much of the social functioning. This contrast between what is said and what is done, between the political discourse and the Mexican reality/fiction can be observed in the following fragment:

Quisiera no tener memoria. Así como este señor gobernador momificado, este Tinín conservado en formol. Porque mi memoria es la del remordimiento, la de la conciencia del absurdo de mi vida. … Me he aburrido con los densos ensayos de El futuro de la democracia, de Bobbio … No deja de ser absurdo que lea una y otra vez a un teórico de la política empeñado en demostrar las contradicciones de los regímenes democráticos; he sido el mayor cómplice de uno de los gobernadores más corruptos de México. … La democracia nunca nos inquietó con sus paradojas, simplemente era un pretexto, demagogia barata. (Caneyada, 2012, pp. 49-50)

32Impunity and crime, violence and corruption are all interrelated phenomena (in terms of synergy), they are part of the reality of the country south of the border, where Caneyada’s novels take place. This, however, is not a new phenomenon (as the literary recreation of a corrupt society) if we consider that this alternative critical perspective of the contemporary world was already consolidated in the American hard-boiled fiction of the first decades of the 20th century, and its stories took place north of the border.

33From a standpoint that adjusts to the policies and actions that validate undocumented migration, the establishment of maquilas (factories) based on low-skilled work, and the trivialization of illegal trafficking, it would seem that all types of fictional and factual violence are circumscribed to the border and the space of northern Mexico.

34In two works on the crime genre, Jennifer Insley (2004) and Frauke Gewecke (2012) address the border and northern Mexico as a transnational space. The practices of violence on which Caneyada focuses and that appear in other border texts—political corruption, sexual violence, murder, kidnapping, and torture by security forces—transcend the space of the line that separates two countries. Again, in line with the expanded model of this border, the paradigm of Western culture, allegedly democratic and civilized (the North), is contrasted with a reality where criminals do not follow the law or bend it until it breaks (the South).

35Despite the way in which the manichaean view that results from the origin narrative of the border is consolidated, most fictions question the practices of violence, while offering ways to understand the narratives that we build about it and putting into question its relevance and normalization in recent transmedia practices.

36The border, as a geopolitical limit, entails at first sight a division between two spaces, and therefore between two societies. In the case of Bórder, it is important to visualize it not only as a border, but to assume it in turn as an encounter, a terminus, a rupture and a beginning that can also determine the way of narrating a territory, analyzing and understanding cinematographic practice. The most recurrent theme ends up being violence, configured in hyperbolic terms by the writing, but which has a solid foundation in objective reality if we pay attention to the way in which, on a daily basis, everyday violence is faced, which, normalized, does not seem to affect those who inhabit the area.

37As a geographical space, there is no transparency in the relationship between the line and violence: it is a mediated, historical relationship, built over centuries from the multiple difficulties in human relations of spaces that are considered different, at least, if not opposed or divergent. The division between Mexico and the United States appears to be artificial, merely a convention (even though there is a natural boundary, the Rio Grande/Grande River, and a desert where any element is foreign) that in practice is porous in both directions.

38It would seem, in this way, that the same universe, a geographical space imagined by different people, the border (encounter, end, rupture, beginning), conditions, to a certain extent, the way of narrating, and not only that, the way of analyzing and understanding the narratives that refer to it and reconfigure it. And a central concern in some way, violence, exalted by the fictional gaze, perhaps, but not exaggerated if we read the news and see how, to date, people live and die in that part of the world.

39It is not an easy determinism, but the understanding that a reality also participates in the process; the border and those who inhabit it (passing through or who have come to stay) are not mere scenery and figurines, but specific human problems, a desolate and complex territory that is constituted as a binding axis of history.

40In this sense, it is possible to suppose that the different texts, the result of different social practices, are influenced by the geographical area to which they refer (the confluence of human types and their frictions, the forms of power), by the characteristics of the human types they recreate (brutal and simple beings, passionate or indifferent), and ultimately also conditioned by the prejudice (of positive or negative sign) that influences our vision of the world.

41Transmedia processes refer, in this way, to non-fictional texts, associated to other cultural practices, and therefore expand their meaning not from a mimetic reference to reality, but based on the reconfiguration of senses that are assumed as symbolic forms that, in a certain way, impose themselves or dialogue with the objective world of geopolitical limits.

42In this sense, the border is intentionally eluded: the desert as a space of transit, the plastic tape as a limit and exclusion associated with violence. This Sonora-Arizona desert, although it is not found along this border, is part of the imaginary that defines it, that associates it with the threatening perspective for those who come from the south, while in the distant horizon prosperous cities spread out amidst sown fields and oil exploitations.

43This is the last scenario, the territorial framework in which much of the life of the border, real and imagined, takes place, the locus eremus of a model that I propose to deconstruct.The border is a metaphor for contemporary societies, which seem surprised because we have been unable to meet the expectations of socio-political stability, economic sufficiency and welfare state that were envisioned and promised in the 60s of the twentieth century. From the reflection of transmedia studies, which relate different texts and codes, but which form complementary meanings, we must appreciate the phenomenon of violence as a reality that must be made explicit in order to try to understand it, because only in this way will we be able to propose ways of solution.

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Notes

1 The language of the original works, written either in Spanish, English or a mixture of Spanish and French, is maintained, taking into account the linguistic complexity of North America and the migratory processes.

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Rodrigo Pardo Fernández, « Narratives of migration, a reader of the foundations of identity »Amerika [En ligne], 29 | 2024, mis en ligne le 02 janvier 2025, consulté le 23 janvier 2026. URL : http://journals.openedition.org/amerika/20379 ; DOI : https://doi.org/10.4000/1330p

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Rodrigo Pardo Fernández

Profesor-investigador, Instituto de Investigaciones Filosóficas Juan Villoro, UMSNH

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