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Students’ readiness for learner autonomy: A comparative analysis of EFL learning in French and Algerian universities

L’aptitude des étudiants à apprendre de manière autonome : étude comparative de l’apprentissage de l’anglais dans des universités françaises et algériennes
Rahima Arib et Daniel Schug

Résumés

Cette note de recherche porte sur l’autonomie d’apprentissage en langue chez des étudiants de première année de licence d’anglais (LLCER) en France et en Algérie. Étroitement lié au concept d’empowerment, l’autonomie renvoie, entre autres, à la capacité à réfléchir sur son apprentissage et à se fixer des objectifs. Malgré son caractère individuel, elle peut être influencée par de nombreux facteurs tels que le contexte d’apprentissage, les enseignants, les pairs et les pratiques pédagogiques. Bien que ses bénéfices soient largement reconnus, de nombreux étudiants rencontrent encore des difficultés à prendre en charge leur apprentissage. Cette étude vise donc à étudier cette propension par le biais d’une version adaptée du Learner Autonomy Readiness Questionnaire de Kartal et Balçikanli (2019). Les résultats révèlent que, même si les étudiants des deux pays montrent un certain niveau de prise de responsabilité, beaucoup continuent à s’appuyer sur les enseignants pour prendre certaines décisions, en particulier chez les étudiants algériens. Les résultats font l’objet d’une discussion ainsi que de pistes de recherche à venir.

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Texte intégral

Introduction

1This research report presents initial results from a comparative study on the language learner autonomy of first-year English majors in two universities, one in France and one in Algeria. As a variable related to how students take control of their learning, learner autonomy (LA) is innately connected to the concept of empowerment (Kaur, 2014). Just as with empowerment, encouraging LA has been shown to have several advantages, such as increased motivation and greater learning gains (Baranovskaya & Shaforostova, 2018; Sullivan & King, 1998).

2Despite its major place in education research, LA remains a thorny topic in language education. While students may understand the value of autonomy, research indicates that they struggle to define goals and choose learning strategies for themselves (Khairallah et al., 2020). Similarly, and regardless of their own feelings on learner autonomy, teachers often rely on teacher-centered approaches (Quoc Tran, 2020). Furthermore, some researchers argue that certain contexts present obstacles to an autonomy-driven learning environment (Cappellini, 2019).

3The findings presented here are drawn from a larger study on the sociocultural factors impacting LA, conducted as part of the PhD thesis of the first researcher. With the goal of discussing strategies for empowering learners to become more autonomous, this report is guided by the following research questions:

  1. To what extent do university English majors feel empowered to be autonomous learners?

  2. How does students’ readiness for LA compare between France and Algeria?

1. Empowering students for learner autonomy

4According to Little (1991), “Autonomy is essentially a capacity for detachment, critical reflection, decision-making, and independent action.” Learner autonomy, therefore, cannot be reduced to a single behavior or group of behaviors. It is a complex variable that covers several dimensions relevant to the present study.

5First, LA has a significant psychological dimension. Of the utmost importance is a feeling of empowerment; feeling that you have the opportunity and ability to take control of your learning is a crucial precursor to autonomy (Dağgöl, 2020). Additionally, taking control requires confidence in one’s abilities to engage in autonomous learning (Benson, 1997; Prince, 2007; Yen et al., 2024). It is also associated with intrinsic motivation, a capacity for self-determination, and positive affect (Birdsell, 2013; Gillet et al., 2013; Kashefian Naeeni et al., 2012).

6LA also has a strong social dimension that involves the teacher, classroom, and local culture. Learners generally do not arrive to class knowing how to be autonomous but require guidance (Wachob, 2006). Research in several university contexts has shown that students rarely identify as autonomous, only occasionally employ autonomous strategies, and might even express resistance to autonomous learning (Barrantes Elizondo & Olivares Garita, 2013; Khairallah et al., 2020). The teacher’s role then becomes crucial—as a facilitator and trainer—in providing opportunities for self-directed practice and practical learning activities (Byman & Kansanen, 2008; Dam, 2003; Little, 1991).

7In the classroom, significant attention has been given to the types of activities and resources students interact with in autonomous learning setups (Kalyaniwala & Molle, 2021). Research has focused on Self-Access Centers (Prince, 2005; Rivens Mompean, 2024), the role of logbooks (Chateau & Candas, 2015), different types of peer and instructor feedback (Bain, 2010), and communicative activities (Cruaud, 2018). Also, English learners in Russian and Chilean universities showed increases in LA potential in programs that left space for expressing opinions, giving peer feedback, and participating in materials selection (Baranovskaya & Shaforostova, 2018; Glas & Cardenas – Claros, 2018).

8Lastly, culture plays an important role in determining one’s readiness for LA (Pennycook, 1997). The similar themes observed in the Algerian and French university contexts are of particular interest to the present study. Questionnaires with students, analyses of classroom materials, and interviews with teachers in English classes in several Algerian universities show similar findings; despite positive attitudes towards the concept of LA, many learners and teachers describe teacher-centered learning processes and question whether the Algerian culture is welcoming to the concept of autonomy (Benchaa, 2021; Hadi, 2020; Missoum, 2018). These reports are consistent with Terrier and Maury’s (2015) finding that students did not know how to be autonomous in a French university. Nevertheless, researchers insist on the importance of autonomous learning spaces, their potential to enhance classroom learning (Chateau et al., 2017; Chateau & Molle, 2023; Molle et al., 2019), and their ability to offer a personalized approach leading to satisfaction with the learning experience (Terrier, 2023).

9This report seeks to add to the studies on language learning autonomy in France and Algeria and contextualize it within the large body of research on factors and attitudes impacting autonomous learning, with the aim of recommending strategies that teachers can use to empower autonomous learners.

2. Methodology

10Questionnaire. To analyze learner autonomy, this study used an adapted version of the Learner Autonomy Readiness questionnaire described in Kartal and Balçikanli (2019). It is composed of 43 questions, divided into six sections. First, section 1 gathered biographical data through multiple choice questions. Then, sections 2 and 3, using a 5-point Likert scale, assessed students’ perceptions of learner and teacher responsibilities (11 items) and their own decision-making abilities (9 items). Sections 4 and 5, using a 4-point Likert scale, then examined students’ autonomous learning habits outside the classroom (15 items) and students’ in-class behaviors (3 items). Finally, section 6 included two open-ended questions about students’ beliefs on autonomous language learning. The questionnaire, along with the mean scores obtained for each group, can be found here: rb.gy/9awvhk. Additionally, Kartal and Balçikanli’s (2019) original questionnaire can be found here for reference: https://bitly.cx/​hzMF3.

11Participants. The present study uses a convenience sampling strategy, i.e. selecting participants that were readily available and easy to contact, which allows for a close look at an individual context (Etikan et al., 2016). Given the context-specific nature of LA, small-scale studies are useful for identifying factors impacting it in different settings. Data was collected from 30 first-year English majors at the researchers’ host universities, the University Abderrahmane-Mira of Bejaia, Algeria and Paris-Nanterre University, France. Students in Algeria responded to a paper version of the questionnaire, whereas students in France responded to an online version. In both countries, the vast majority of respondents were female (28 in France, 27 in Algeria) and had a minimum of seven years of English learning experience.

3. Results

12For sections 2 and 3 (perception of students/teachers’ responsibilities and decision-making abilities), autonomy scores (1-5) were calculated as the average of item responses, with 1 indicating low autonomy and 5 indicating a higher level. For sections 4 and 5 (engagement in autonomous activities outside/in the classroom), scores (1-4) were also calculated based on item averages, with 1 indicating low frequency of participation in learning activities, and 4 indicating a higher level. These scores are presented in Table 1 below. Responses to the open-ended questions in section 6 (students’ beliefs regarding autonomous language learning) were used to contextualize the quantitative data.

Table 1. A comparative analysis of learners’ perceptions of responsibility distribution, decision-making abilities, and autonomous engagement in and out of classes. Values rounded to the nearest 100th.

Category

French Context

Algerian Context

M

SD

M

SD

Section 2 (11 items). Learners’ perceptions of their own and their teachers’ responsibilities

1 = 100% the teacher; 5 = 100% the student

3.37

0.47

3.18

0.29

Section 3 (9 items). Learners’ decision-making abilities

1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree

3.61

0.47

2.79

0.11

Section 4 (15 items). Engagement in autonomous activities outside the class

1 = never; 4 = often

2.98

0.38

3.15

0.29

Section 5 (3 ietms). Engagement in autonomous learning in class

1 = never; 4 = often

3.60

0.20

2.60

0.20

13Perceptions of responsibility (section 2) highlight how students view their own roles versus their teachers’ roles in the learning journey. French learners scored slightly higher (M = 3.37) than their Algerian counterparts (M = 3.18) in this section, suggesting a potentially more developed understanding of shared responsibility wherein the student takes a greater role in the learning process.

  • 1 This trend, along with the others described in this section, would require confirmation through sta (...)

14However, we observe a critical distinction in descriptive data between French and Algerian learners in terms of decision-making abilities (section 3)1, a fundamental skill that underpins learner autonomy (Holec, 1981). The lower scores of Algerian learners (M = 2.79) in decision-making compared to their French counterparts (M = 3.61) might be attributed to sociocultural factors, explored in the following section. The qualitative data shed light on this phenomenon, by indicating that sociocultural issues unique to the Algerian context may be at play:

“I feel that learning English in my University could be more about what I enjoy and need. But actually our teachers work in a very rigid way. I wonder if I could do better if I had more chances to learn according to my preferences.” – Algerian student 1

15Additionally, while Algerian learners demonstrated slightly higher scores regarding their engagement in autonomous activities outside the class (M = 3.15) compared to French students (M = 2.98) (section 4), their in-class autonomy remains limited (M = 2.60) compared to French learners (M = 3.60) (section 5). This finding is consistent with qualitative data showing that Algerian students were more focused on these external, logistical, or institutional barriers that prevent effective language learning:

“There is a huge lack of necessary materials to learn languages” – Algerian student 2

“Teachers are the sole source [of language input] and we barely can express ourselves during the one hour and half session…[there’s] no way to voice what we think” – Algerian student 3

16French students, however, reported being more active in the classroom and were more capable of making decisions about their learning. One particularly striking finding was the response to the question “How do you think you would be at choosing learning objectives inside the class?” where French students had a score of 4.81 and Algerian students 2.85. Qualitative data help explain this phenomenon to an extent, as indicated below:

“Even when I wasn’t enrolled in a degree program, I took the initiative to continue improving my English on my own so that I wouldn’t lose my current level.” – French student 1

“[A good language student] must regularly devote time to language practice, whether it be through reading, listening, conversation practice, or writing” – French student 2

17These responses highlight the belief among students that part of the initiative for language learning must come from them, and that independent work should make up a part of the learning process. Such comments, though focused on learning outside of the classroom, underscore an awareness of how to go about language improvement. Although students from both contexts describe difficulties in the learning process, the French students appeared more willing and more able to make a plan and persevere.

18Although quantitative scores suggested limited self-direction, French students’ responses to open-ended questions frequently indicated engagement in out-of-class activities. This willingness is reflected in their thoughtful and ambitious responses, which emphasized the importance of taking personal initiative in their language learning. For instance, one student described an exemplary foreign language learner saying:

“A good language learner is, for me, someone…who actively seeks to deepen their knowledge outside the classroom… He will complete all the assigned work, and exploring (sic) additional resources in the language, writing to people of the target culture, speaking with foreigners, and even planning full immersion experiences in the target language’s culture.” – French student 3

19Further analysis is required to understand this discrepancy; it may be that students do not consider their leisure activities as language learning experiences or that they do not actually do all the work they know to be necessary to progress.

4. Discussion

20The findings of this study substantiate the theoretical frameworks of individualized autonomy proposed by Little (1991) and Benson (2013), perhaps more evident in the French students’ readiness for independent decision-making. While both French and Algerian participants exhibited an understanding of their learning responsibilities, the scores obtained suggest a disparity in actual decision-making abilities, with French students scoring higher (M = 3.61) compared to their Algerian counterparts (M = 2.79). This divergence aligns with Khenoune’s (2019) critical reflection on learner autonomy within the Algerian cultural context, which emphasizes how societal and educational structures fundamentally constrain individual agency. The work of Arib & Maouche (2021) further illuminates this phenomenon, identifying specific cultural parameters that impede learner autonomy in Algeria, including the pervasive influence of parental and teacher-centered approaches that systematically restrict students’ freedom of choice and self-directed learning.

21The study’s findings also underscore the complex interplay between individual motivation and institutional context in shaping learner autonomy. While both French and Algerian students reported some understanding that language learning is, at least partially, a personal journey, both groups had relatively low scores for autonomous activity frequency. This is consistent with Yan (2007), who found that students do not regularly participate in independent learning activities, despite recognizing their importance. The average engagement levels of Algerian and French students in autonomous activities (M = 3.15 and 2.98, respectively) suggest that autonomy is not merely an individual psychological construct but a nuanced product of the broader educational ecosystem and learning habits. Future research will need to take a closer look at students’ past experiences with language learning and the tools at their disposal.

22Also, there is a notable difference in students’ attitudes towards their learning programs and their use of learning materials, perhaps reflecting deeper systemic challenges in the Algerian educational environment. This discrepancy suggests that while Algerian students display readiness in compensating for institutional gaps through extracurricular efforts, they lack opportunities and skills within the boundaries of the physical classroom. These findings emphasize that context is of paramount importance in measuring readiness for LA (Palfreyman, 2014). Kuchah & Smith’s (2011) research in the African context provides critical insights into how resource limitations profoundly impact autonomous learning practices. The Algerian participants powerfully illustrate these constraints, with one student poignantly noting the absence of even basic resources.

23This research contributes to the ongoing discussion on language learning autonomy, emphasizing the need for contextually sensitive approaches that recognize the intricate ways in which cultural, institutional, and personal factors intersect to shape learners’ autonomous potential.

Conclusion

24The present study sought to explore the levels of LA in first-year undergraduates majoring in English at universities in France and Algeria, with the goal of understanding to what extent learners are empowered to be autonomous, and how LA levels differ between the two countries. Our findings suggest that learners in both countries exhibit some level of autonomy and have generally positive attitudes towards LA; they assumed some responsibility in their learning and participated in learning activities both in and out of class. Students in France, however, seemed to exhibit slightly higher levels of autonomy for most measures, except for learning practices outside of class.

25The study’s findings resonate with Littlewood’s (1999) seminal work on the nuanced taxonomy of autonomy, particularly the distinction between independence and interdependence, and proactive versus reactive autonomy. While both French and Algerian students demonstrated a sophisticated understanding of successful language learning characteristics, the research reveals some differences in autonomous practice. The French context appears to emerge as the more conducive environment for proactive engagement, with students exhibiting a somewhat higher capacity for independent decision-making, in contrast to the Algerian setting where systemic and cultural constraints substantially limit learners’ autonomous potential. This study underscores the critical role of educational and societal environments as pivotal indicators of autonomy practice, suggesting that the ability to make autonomous decisions is profoundly shaped by broader institutional and cultural frameworks rather than solely by individual motivation or cognitive capabilities.

26The findings of this study may be limited by the small sample size. Nevertheless, it provides a solid foundation for the larger PhD research project that will take a closer look at the various sociocultural factors impacting language learner autonomy at the university level.

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Notes

1 This trend, along with the others described in this section, would require confirmation through statistical analysis. However, given the nature of our data—based on convenience sampling, a limited number of participants, and a strong predominance of female respondents—we have chosen not to conduct such analyses for the purpose of this paper.

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Référence électronique

Rahima Arib et Daniel Schug, « Students’ readiness for learner autonomy: A comparative analysis of EFL learning in French and Algerian universities »Recherche et pratiques pédagogiques en langues [En ligne], Vol. 44 N°2 | 2025, mis en ligne le 21 octobre 2025, consulté le 23 janvier 2026. URL : http://journals.openedition.org/apliut/12479 ; DOI : https://doi.org/10.4000/15ab2

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Auteurs

Rahima Arib

Rahima Arib is a PhD student at the Faculty of Letters and Languages, University Abderrahmane Mira de Béjaïa, and a member of the LESMS laboratory (Les langues étrangères de spécialité en milieux socioprofessionnels), where she examines language learning autonomy as a sociocultural construct and has taught undergraduate English courses at various levels. Her research uses an ecological perspective to identify the myriad of factors capable of influencing learner autonomy, including cultural, institutional, personal, and social elements of the learning environment. In addition to completing research internships in several countries, Rahima has also published a number of articles about students’ language learning habits and has presented at conferences in Algeria and abroad.
rahima.arib[at]univ-bejaia.dz

Daniel Schug

Daniel Schug is a Senior Academic Development Coordinator at Accent Global Learning. Based in Paris, he oversees exchange programs for American universities sending their students to France. He also serves as Accent’s local liaison with the Paris College of Art. Currently on leave from the Université Paris Nanterre where he was affiliated to the CREA-GREMLIN research group, Daniel’s research interests relate to the psychological aspects of language learning, such as motivation and language anxiety. He has also worked on the use of technology in language courses, particularly the use of e-tandems and artificial intelligence.
dschug[at]parisnanterre.fr

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