Navigation – Plan du site

AccueilNuméros21Studies on WoodReconstruction of the Byzantine s...

Studies on Wood

Reconstruction of the Byzantine shipwreck Yenikapı 12

Işıl Özsait-Kocabaş
p. 283-288

Résumés

La barque Yenikapı 12, découverte sur le site de Yenikapı à Istanbul, a fait naufrage au ixe siècle apr. J.-C. La reconstruction a montré que Yenikapı 12 était un petit bateau de commerce d’environ 9,24 m de long et 2,64 m de large. Il était propulsé par une voile latine gréée sur un seul mât et dirigé par deux gouvernails latéraux. La réplique navigante à l’échelle de Yenikapı 12 a été construite sur la base des vestiges archéologiques. L’objectif de la reconstruction était d’appréhender ce bateau de transport dans sa forme et ses dimensions d’origine, afin de mieux identifier sa fonction, ses performances et sa capacité de charge.

Haut de page

Texte intégral

1The Yenikapı 12 (YK12) shipwreck with its cargo was discovered in the Yenikapı excavation site by Istanbul Archaeological Museums (IAM). It was uncovered in February 2007 at the east of the Theodosian harbour (Kızıltan 2010; Kocabaş 2015b). The cargo of the shipwreck consists of intact amphorae and amphora fragments in its hold. In addition, cooking utensils and personal artefacts were found in a special compartment close to the stern (Denker et al. 2013, p. 204, 209). Based on a coin found within the shipwreck context, the ship has been dated to the 9th century AD: results of the radiocarbon analysis of wood samples give a date range between 672 and 870 AD (Kocabaş 2015a, p. 13). Excavation, documentation, lifting and post-excavation studies of YK12 were carried out by an Istanbul University (IU) team under the direction of Ufuk Kocabaş (Özsait-Kocabaş, Kocabaş 2008, p. 112-124; Kocabaş, Türkmenoğlu 2009; Kocabaş 2015a, p. 11-12). The YK12 reconstruction project was conducted by I. Özsait-Kocabaş from the IU Department of Conservation of Marine Archaeological Objects. The construction and building technique of YK12, and its comparative evaluations with other Yenikapı shipwrecks, have been discussed in detail in previous contributions (Özsait-Kocabaş 2012, 2013, 2018). This article is focused on the reconstruction studies and replica of the YK12.

1. Documentation

2After sinking and resting on its keel, YK12 was quickly buried by sand, and most of the timbers beneath the amphorae were preserved in their original places. The shipwreck was docu­mented in situ involving 3D total station measurements (drawings made with AutoCad software), full-scale hand drawings, photography, photomosaics and visual evaluations. In situ documentation occurred without disturbing the integrity of the hull (Özsait-Kocabaş 2013, p. 49-50). The hull timbers were disassembled and moved to the IU Yenikapı Shipwrecks Research Centre, where they were documented in full-scale using a FaroArm scanner and Rhinoceros 4 software. A complete catalogue of the hull members was established.

2. Construction details

3YK12 vessel was built using a mixed construction technique and is very representative of the transition from shell-based to frame-based construction (Pomey et al. 2012). Keel timbers were joined together by keyed hook scarfs. The rockered central keel timber and curved keel timber at the stern have transverse holes, presumably used for hauling the vessel ashore. The garboards were fastened in the keel rabbets with treenails. Long planking was joined together with S-shaped scarfs. Hull planking was uniformly edge-joined with dowels from the garboard up to the first wale. There is a pattern throughout the long planks, and scarf directions alternate from bow to stern. The framing pattern consists of L-shaped flat floor timbers combined with short and long futtocks. They were placed with the long arms alternating to port and starboard. Frames were fastened to the planking with treenails and iron nails. Towards the stern, bulkheads were designed in order to store the personal items of the crew. The mast step was fitted on the floor timbers. The ceiling planks were placed and nailed to some floor timbers inside the hull (Özsait-Kocabaş, Kocabaş 2008, p. 112-124; Özsait-Kocabaş 2012, p. 115-120, 2018). Considering the properties of the wood used, it can be deduced that the builder ­consciously selected different species of wood for specific uses on the vessel. Chestnut was used for all the planking. The keel members were made from hornbeam and beech. Oak was used for wales, floor timbers and ceiling planks. Walnut was also used for some floor timbers. Ash was preferred for futtocks, mast step and bulkheads. Plane was used for a repair plank (Akkemik, Kocabaş 2014, p. 321).

3. Reconstruction process

4The reconstruction of YK12 was based on the evidence of the hull remains, which are 7 m in length and 2.3 m in width. The bottom of YK12 was well preserved. The surviving parts of the hull consist of the keel, eight planking strakes on the port side and nine planking strakes on the starboard side, two wales on the starboard side, a piece of the starboard caprail, 25 floor timbers, 15 futtocks, the mast step timber and 43 ceiling planks. In contrast to the hull bottom, which maintained its integrity, the majority of the futtocks, deck and upper elements, mast, rigging, and steering components were not found (fig. 1).

Fig. 1: Preserved hull remains and the reconstructed lines

Fig. 1: Preserved hull remains and the reconstructed lines

(drawing I. Özsait-Kocabaş, PDV H. Güler and Ç. Şanlıgençler)

5In reconstruction, various methods have been developed according to the hull integrity of the wrecks (Steffy 1994, p. 214-234; Crumlin-Pedersen 1996, p. 110-119, 2006, p. 58-71; Pomey 2003, p. 57-65; McGrail 2006, p. 53-57). The approaches used in the reconstruction of the missing parts of the shipwreck can be handled in three major ways: evidence from the archaeological remains; corroborated acceptable suggestions; and entirely hypothetical suggestions.

6First, the evidence from the archaeological remains was ­evaluated in an attempt to identify missing parts on the basis of the existence of original hull members, and replicate sym­metries of the original parts and extend strake ends and planking seams. For example: the locations of missing floor timbers were determined according to the room and space of existing frames. The positions of missing futtocks were determined according to the marks and nails on the planks. Also, positions of the missing ceiling planks were determined according to the marks and nails on the inner surface of the frames. Moreover, shallow notches were identified on the outer surfaces of some of the floor timbers. Based on this evidence, it was suggested that the second wale was positioned at the loaded waterline (fig. 2). The original location of the third wale was determined due to the correspondence of the frame stations of plank 9 and wale 3. A few different 3D models at 1:10 scale were constructed. Physical 3D research models yielded clues about the shape and dimensions of the missing floor timbers, and of the missing planking and wale ends.

Fig. 2: The evidence of wale 2 on YK12

Fig. 2: The evidence of wale 2 on YK12

(drawing I. Özsait-Kocabaş, PDV Ç. Şanlıgençler)

7After this work, we conducted comparative studies on vessel for the reconstruction of the missing parts. Our attention focused especially on other Yenikapı shipwrecks, traditional vessels from the Marmara and Black Sea regions (Nutku, Küçük 1963; Turna, Pirim 2015, p. 128-132) and Mediterranean shipwrecks of the same period (Steffy 1982; van Doorninck 1982; Medas 2003; Harpster 2005). The other Yenikapı shipwrecks belonging to the same period, ship type, dimension, function and similar construction tradition helped us a lot. The Yenikapı vessels with plank-edge dowels have many characteri­stics in common: the majority of these vessels are mostly flat in cross section amidships; diagonal and S-scarfs are used to join planks in a strake; there are transverse holes through the keels amidships and towards the stern, presumably used for hauling the vessels ashore; the framing patterns show long armed floor timbers alternating to port and starboard, except for a few. These vessels date between the 7th to the late 10th centuries AD.

8YK12 can be placed among the small-sized vessels with flat floors and plank-edge dowels, built with chestnut planking (YK 7, YK 8, YK 6, YK 9, and YK 20) (Özsait-Kocabaş, Kocabaş 2008, p. 103-112, 132-139, 2019, p. 325-338; Kocabaş 2015a, p. 8; Güler 2017, p. 280-282). It is suggested that this group belongs to a regional type from the Marmara and Black Sea area. Transverse holes in the keel, a rockered keel, chestnut planks and a bulkhead at the stern are characteristic features of the vessels of these regions (Nutku, Kücük 1963, p. 4).

9YK12’s lower curve of the posts was deduced from the shapes of the intact planks. Possible forms for the posts at the waterline were estimated by extending the ends of the planks and of the first wale. The third wale and the caprail assisted in increasing the accuracy of the proposed sheer line. For the upper forms of the posts, preserved parts of the other Yenikapı shipwrecks (YK5, YK18, YK29 and YK32) were examined (Özsait-Kocabaş, Kocabaş 2008, p. 140-147; Kocabaş 2015b, p. 100-103, 122-123, 126-127; Pulak et al. 2015, p. 55-57).

10Ethnographic and other archaeological examples provided some information about the deck of the vessel. Partial decks are seen on small vessels in the Black Sea and the Marmara Sea. There is no evidence of a full deck, but a mark and a nail hole on frame 6 correspond to a possible stanchion for a partial deck. The mast step timber is the principal indicator of the rigging system. The small size of the vessel and lack of any other mortise on the inner surface of the floor timbers suggests that YK12 had a single mast. In addition, two toggles found inside the hull were evidence of rigging equipment (Denker et. al. 2013, p. 200). A similar toggle was found in the Tantura B ship, which had a lateen sail and is dated to the 9th century AD (Polzer 2008, p. 227). The image of a ship with a lateen sail on an amphora dated to the 9th century was discovered in the Yenikapı excavation (Günsenin, Rieth 2012). This particular artefact supplied an important piece of information about our subject. Furthermore, the Yassıada 1 (Steffy 1982, p. 85; Castro et al. 2008, p. 351), Bozburun (Harpster 2009, p. 297-298) and Serçe Limanı (Matthews 2004) reconstructions have used archaeological evidence from these ships to suggest lateen sails and a pair of quarter rudders in each case. Byzantine ship images of the era, as hypothetical suggestions, were also used regarding the general hull shape, the lateen sail and the quarter rudders (Omont 1929, pl. CXVII.16, LII; Albani 1997, p. 82, 84; Evgenidou 1997, p. 37-38). YK12 was likely propelled by a single mast, rigged with a lateen sail and steered by two quarter rudders, which were very characteristic of the period. The results suggested a minimum length overall (LOA) of 9.24 m, a beam (Bm) of 2.64 m, and depth (D) of 1.1 m. The reconstructed length-to-beam ratio of the vessel is 3.5 to 1. The hold was 3.20 m long and could carry an average of 210 amphorae and a maximum of 250. Displacement was calculated as circa 5.2 tons and the estimated cargo capacity is approximately 3.26 tons at the loaded waterline (Özsait-Kocabaş 2018, p. 386).

11These data and their collective evaluation resulted in hand drawings of the lines plan of the vessel, under the supervision of Prof Dr Abdi Kükner. The drawings also took account of the 3D model studies. The vessel lines were created digitally based on numeric values from offset tables using NAPA software, and the hydrostatic properties were calculated using the same software. The surface and shape of the sail were estimated after initial calculations and tested during the sailing trials of the replica. Since the vessel was to be rebuilt and to be sailed, the reconstruction drawings covered all details of construction. These included: a plan showing the hypothetical hull, together with an elevation and sections drawings; the developed planks necessary for production; scaled drawings of the rigging equipment as well as other elements like the quarter rudders.

4. Replica of Yenikapı 12

12Following the reconstruction studies and the drawing of hull lines and sections, preparations were made for the full-scale sailing replica of YK12. The construction of the replica was completed in collaboration with the RMK Marine shipyard team, experienced carpenters and IU Yenikapı shipwrecks project team. We found financial support from the LIMEN: Cultural Ports from the Aegean to the Black Sea project under the auspices of the European Union. The budget for the ­construction of the replica was approximately €55,000, howe­ver the project only provided financial support for the building of a replica for museum exhibition. Within this limited finance we tried anyway to build a vessel that could sail in the sea. Experimental shipbuilding could not really be conducted because of time and cost limitations: our replica study had been aimed to investigate performance of the vessel at sea.

13After the completion of all necessary data, chestnut tree trunks and other timbers were sourced. In order to remove excess water, the sliced chestnut trunks were dried in a ­controlled procedure. During this two-month procedure, a ­construction yard about 15 m long and 6 m wide was set up at the RMK Marine shipyard facility. The full-scale drawings of the keel and the frames were printed and moulds were made. These moulds guided shipwrights to cut timbers in the desired forms. Construction began with setting the keel, and thereafter followed the original hull shape, dimensions and tree species. Frame stations on the planking, hook scarfs of keel timbers, S-scarfs of planks and planking pattern were all recreated according to the original vessel. According to prior analyses, turpentine resin had been used for waterproofing the shipwreck, but at this stage we just applied a modern coloured wood protection wax. Once the hull was finished, we started to work on the rudder system. The hypothetical support mechanism and size of the quarter rudders were tested during the first sailing trials in 2017. It has to be noted that the quarter rudders greatly facilitated manoeuvrability in the harbour entrance. For the first sail, the wind was measured at around 22 knots. During this first sailing, there were six people on the boat and about 2 tons of ballast. The replica achieved a maximum average speed of about 5-6 knots in Tuzla harbour. We successfully tacked many times in this large harbour basin.

14We sailed a second time in calmer weather for a documentary shooting (figs 3 & 4). After the sailing adventure, the replica was transported to the Istanbul Archaeological Museums garden to be exhibited. In November 2018, Yenikapı 12 was exhibited in the Rahmi M. Koç Museum.

Fig. 3: Sailing the Yenikapı 12 replica

Fig. 3: Sailing the Yenikapı 12 replica

(photograph N. Şeralioğlu)

Fig. 4: Sailing the Yenikapı 12 replica

Fig. 4: Sailing the Yenikapı 12 replica

(photograph I. Özsait-Kocabaş)

5. Conclusions

15The YK12 reconstruction was realised from the lines plan drawn up on the basis of an overall analysis and comparative study of the YK12 hull remains. This study led us to develop methods that increased the accuracy of ship reconstruction techniques. Suggested hypotheses were tested formally, proportionally and functionally during the YK12 replica’s ­construction and sailing processes. The YK12 reconstruction project aimed at perceiving a 9th century AD ship in its original form and dimensions as a physical visual source. Future exhibitions in both national and international museums and further sailing experiences have been planned.

Acknowledgements

16I would like to extend my sincere thanks to Istanbul Archaeological Museums; to the directors Zeynep Kızıltan (retired), Rahmi Asal and the experts of the Museum; to the Istanbul University team of Yenikapı shipwrecks and to the project director Prof Ufuk Kocabaş; to Prof Abdi Kükner from ITU; to Prof Ünal Akkemik from IU; to Rahmi Koç, Vera Bulgurlu and Ertuğrul Duru for their contribution to the reconstruction work at RMK Marine Shipyard; to Özgür Numan, Orhan Can, Oğuz Avcı, Mercan Tara Şişman, Tayfun Bilgili, Damla Pay, Dilek Çıracı, Orhan Bağ, Şaban Er, Şaban Tuğtepe, Sercan Koşan from RMK Marine Shipyard; to Orkan Köyağasıoğlu, Seçil Kocabaş and to all the relevant departments at Istanbul University. The Yenikapı Shipwrecks Project was supported by the Istanbul University Scientific Research Projects Units (Projects no 2294, 3907, 7381, 12765). The reconstruction works were supported by the LIMEN Project, in the framework of the Black Sea Basin Programme, co-financed by the European Union through the European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument and the Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance.

Haut de page

Bibliographie

Akkemik Ü, Kocabaş U.
2014 Woods of Byzantine trade ships of Yenikapı (Istanbul) and changes in wood use from 6th to 11th century, Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry 14. 2, p. 317-327.

Albani J.
1997 Sea journey, in D. Zafiropoulou (ed.), Journeys on the Seas of Byzantium, Athens, Hellenic Ministry of Culture, p. 82-87.

Castro F., Fonseca N., Vacas T., Ciciliot F.
2008 A quantitative look at Mediterranean lateen- and square-rigged ships (Part 1), IJNA 37.2, p. 347-359.

Crumlin-Pedersen O.
1996 Problems of reconstruction and the estimation of performance, in R. Gardiner, A. E. Christensen (eds), The Earliest Ships, Conway’s History of Ships, London, Naval Institute Press, p. 110-119.

Crumlin-Pedersen O.
2006 The Dover Boat – a reconstruction case-study, IJNA 35.1, p. 58-71.

Denker A., Demirkök F., Kiraz M., Akbaytogan T.
2013 YK12, in Z. Kızıltan (ed.), Stories from the Hidden Harbor: The Shipwrecks of Yenikapı, Istanbul, Vehbi Koç Vakfı, p. 197-209.

Evgenidou D.
1997 Byzantine shipbuilding, in D. Zafiropoulou (ed.), Journeys on the Seas of Byzantium, Athens, Hellenic Ministry of Culture, p. 32-39.

Güler T.
2017 Construction technique of the Yenikapı 20 shipwreck, found in the Harbour of Theodosius (Istanbul, Turkey), in J. Gawronski, A. van Holk, J. Schokkenbroek (eds), Ships and Maritime Landscapes, Proceedings of the Thirteenth International Symposium on Boat and Ship Archaeology (ISBSA 13), Amsterdam 2012, Eelde, Barkhuis, p. 280-282.

Günsenin N., Rieth E.
2012 Un graffito de bateau à voile latine sur une amphore (ixe s. ap. J.-C.) du Portus Theodosiacus (Yenikapı), Anatolia Antiqua 20.1, p. 157-164.

Harpster M.
2005 A Re-assembly and reconstruction of the 9th-century AD vessel wrecked off the coast of Bozburun, Turkey, PhD dissertation, Texas A&M University, Department of Anthropology, College Station.

Harpster M.
2009 Designing the 9th century-AD vessel from Bozburun, Turkey, IJNA 38.2, p. 297-313.

Kızıltan Z.
2010 Excavations at Yenikapı, Sirkeci and Üsküdar within Marmaray and Metro projects, in U. Kocabaş (ed.), Istanbul Archaeological Museums, Proceedings of the 1st Symposium on Marmaray-Metro Salvage Excavations, 2008, Istanbul, Epsilon, p. 1-16.

Kocabaş U.
2015a The Yenikapı Byzantine-era shipwrecks, Istanbul, Turkey: A preliminary report and inventory of the 27 wrecks studied by Istanbul University, IJNA 44.1, p. 1-35.

Kocabaş U.
2015b Geçmişe Açılan Kapı, Yenikapı Batıkları, İstanbul, Ege Yayınları.

Kocabaş U., Türkmenoğlu E.
2009 Yenikapı shipwrecks: fieldwork, conservation-restoration procedures and construction features, in X. Nieto, M. A. Cau (eds), Arqueologia Nàutica Mediterrània, Girona, CASC-Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya, Monografies del CASC 8, p. 235-243.

Matthews S. D.
2004 Evidence for the rig of the Serçe Limanı ship, in G. F. Bass, F. H. van Doorninck Jr. (eds), Yassı Ada, Vol I: A Seventh-Century Byzantine Shipwreck, College Station, Texas A&M University Press, p. 32-64.

McGrail S.
2006 Some principles for the reconstruction of ancient boat structures, IJNA 35.1, p. 53-57.

Medas S.
2003 The Late-Roman Parco di Teodorico wreck, Ravenna, Italy: preliminary remarks on the hull and the shipbuilding, in C. Beltrame (ed.), Boats, Ship and Shipyards. Proceeding of the Ninth International Symposium on Boat and Ship Archaeology (ISBSA 9), Venice 2000, Oxford, Oxbow Books, p. 42-48.

Nutku A., Kücük F.
1963 Türk kıyı tekneleri I ‘Çektirme’ ‘Gulet’, ITU Gemi Enstitüsü Bülteni 8, p. 1-36.

Omont H. A.
1929 Miniatures des plus anciens manuscrits Grecs de la Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris Librairie Ancienne Honoré Champion.

Özsait-Kocabas I.
2012 Hull characteristics of the Yenikapı 12 shipwreck, in N. Günsenin (ed.), Between Continents, Proceeding of the Twelfth International Symposium on Boat and Ship Archaeology (ISBSA 12), Istanbul 2009, Istanbul, Ege Yayınları, p.115-120.

Özsait-Kocabas I.
2013 The centuries long voyage of ship Yenikapı 12, in Z. Kızıltan (ed.), Stories from the Hidden Harbor Shipwrecks of Yenikapı, Istanbul, Vehbi Koç Vakfı, p. 47-55.

Özsait-Kocabas I.
2018 The Yenikapı 12 shipwreck, a 9th century merchantman from the Theodosian Harbour in Istanbul, Turkey: construction and reconstruction, IJNA 47.2, p. 357-390.

Özsait-Kocabas I.
2019 The anatomy of a Byzantine vessel: Yenikapı 8 shipwreck, Art-Sanat 11, p. 325-338.

Özsait-Kocabaş I., Kocabaş U.
2008 Technological and constructional features of Yenikapı shipwrecks: A preliminary evaluation, in U. Kocabaş (ed.), The ‘Old Ships’ of the ‘New Gate’ 1, Yenikapı shipwrecks, Istanbul, Ege Yayınları, Vol. I, p. 97-186.

Polzer M. E.
2008 Toggles and sails in the ancient world: rigging elements recove­­red from the Tantura B shipwreck, Israel, IJNA 37.2, p. 225-252.

Pomey P.
2003 Reconstruction of Marseilles 6th century BC Greek ship, in C. Beltrame (ed.), Boats, Ship and Shipyards, Proceeding of the Ninth International Symposium on Boat and Ship Archaeology (ISBSA 9), Venice 2000, Oxford, Oxbow Books, p. 57-65.

Pomey P., Kahanov Y., Rieth E.
2012 Transition from Shell to Skeleton in Ancient Mediterranean Ship-construction: analysis, problems, and future research, IJNA 41.2, p. 235-314.

Pulak C., Ingram R., Jones M.
2015 Eight Byzantine shipwrecks from the Theodosian Harbour excavations at Yenikapı in Istanbul, Turkey: an introduction, IJNA 44.1, p. 39-73.

Steffy J.R.
1982 Reconstructing the hull, in G.F. Bass, F.H. van Doorninck. (eds), Yassı Ada Vol I: Seventh-Century Byzantine Shipwreck, College Station, Texas A&M University Press, p. 65-86.

Steffy J.R.
1994 Wooden Ship Building and the Interpretation of Shipwrecks, College Station, Texas A&M University Press.

Turna İ., Pirim A. E.
2015 A study about the brief history of the vessel named ‘Çektirme’ and its role on the commercial activities of its age, Sosyal Bilimler Araştırmaları Dergisi 12, p. 119-135.

Doorninck van F. H.
1982 The hull remains, in G.F. Bass, F.H. van Doorninck (eds), Yassı Ada Vol I: Seventh-Century Byzantine Shipwreck, College Station, Texas A&M University Press, p. 32-64.

Haut de page

Table des illustrations

Titre Fig. 1: Preserved hull remains and the reconstructed lines
Crédits (drawing I. Özsait-Kocabaş, PDV H. Güler and Ç. Şanlıgençler)
URL http://journals.openedition.org/archaeonautica/docannexe/image/2469/img-1.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 641k
Titre Fig. 2: The evidence of wale 2 on YK12
Crédits (drawing I. Özsait-Kocabaş, PDV Ç. Şanlıgençler)
URL http://journals.openedition.org/archaeonautica/docannexe/image/2469/img-2.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 541k
Titre Fig. 3: Sailing the Yenikapı 12 replica
Crédits (photograph N. Şeralioğlu)
URL http://journals.openedition.org/archaeonautica/docannexe/image/2469/img-3.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 520k
Titre Fig. 4: Sailing the Yenikapı 12 replica
Crédits (photograph I. Özsait-Kocabaş)
URL http://journals.openedition.org/archaeonautica/docannexe/image/2469/img-4.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 717k
Haut de page

Pour citer cet article

Référence papier

Işıl Özsait-Kocabaş, « Reconstruction of the Byzantine shipwreck Yenikapı 12 »Archaeonautica, 21 | 2021, 283-288.

Référence électronique

Işıl Özsait-Kocabaş, « Reconstruction of the Byzantine shipwreck Yenikapı 12 »Archaeonautica [En ligne], 21 | 2021, mis en ligne le 01 juillet 2022, consulté le 21 septembre 2022. URL : http://journals.openedition.org/archaeonautica/2469 ; DOI : https://doi.org/10.4000/archaeonautica.2469

Haut de page

Auteur

Işıl Özsait-Kocabaş

İstanbul University, Faculty of Letters, Division of Conservation of Marine Archaeological Objects Ordu Caddesi, 34459 Laleli-İstanbul, Turkey

Articles du même auteur

Haut de page

Droits d’auteur

Tous droits réservés

Haut de page
Rechercher dans OpenEdition Search

Vous allez être redirigé vers OpenEdition Search