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From βαλανεῖα to thermae: unveiling the transition from Greek to Roman architectural models of baths by technological and provenance archaeometric studies on bricks and tiles

Des βαλανεῖα aux thermae: dévoiler la transition entre les modèles architecturaux grecs et romains par des études de technologie et archéométriques de provenance sur les briques et les tuiles
Simona Raneri, Rosa Torre, Paolo Mazzoleni, Chiara Portale et Germana Barone
p. 187-202

Résumés

Jusqu'à présent inexploré, l'introduction et la diffusion des bâtiments thermaux romains dans la prima provincia (Sicile) sont largement débattues dans les études archéologiques actuelles. Principalement en raison du manque de fouilles systématiques et d'études technologiques détaillées, les thermes dans la Sicile hellénistique-romaine ont été jusqu'ici interprétés comme une nouvelle réalité sociale et architecturale. Cependant, une étude archéologique plus attentive suggérerait une transformation graduelle du paysage architectural de la tradition du bain purement grec aux types thermae canoniques. Le but de cet article est donc l’étude de la culture traditionnelle du bain chaud et en particulier la transition entre les modèles architecturaux grecs et romains (de βαλανεῖα à thermae), en appliquant une approche archéométrique sur des échantillons de briques et de tuiles de trois sites archéologiques siciliens – Solunto, Taormina, Tindari – qui se sont récemment avéré être parmi les premières villes en Sicile dans lesquelles les thermes romains ont été établis au début de l'Empire. Nous avons réalisé des analyses pétrographiques, minéralogiques (XRD), micromorphologiques (SEM) et géochimiques (XRF) sur une sélection de vestiges de bâtiments de bain (suspensurae, tuiles, briques) pour explorer les questions de technologie et de production. Les résultats obtenus ont permis d'identifier les productions locales et de les distinguer des importations, en redessinant certains aspects du contexte historique, économique, social et technologique de la construction de la Sicile romaine.

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Texte intégral

Our deepest thanks go equally to those who have made our study and, therefore, possible the collection of samples within the archaeological areas of Tindari, Solunto and Taormina, authorizing the sampling campaigns. In particular, thanks to Dr. Gabriella Tigano, responsible for the U. O. V, of the Messina’s Soprintendenza; Dr. Laura di Leonardo, our reference at Solunto Archaeological Park; and, last but don’t least, to Drs. M. G. Vanaria and M. C. Lentini, the latter as Director of the Archaeological Park of ancient Naxos and Taormina at the very beginning of this research.

1. Introduction

1The present research is framed in the well know archaeological and archaeometric debate regarding the “Romanization” process of the prima provincia, namely Sicily (Buscemi 2012; Campagna, 2003; 2011a; Lucore & Trümper 2013; Neudecker 2011; Osanna & Torelli, 2006; Prag 2009; Prag, 2014; Portale, 2002; Portale, 2006; Portale, 2007a; Portale, 2015; Wilson, 2013), during the late Hellenistic Age and intends to unveil the transformation of public baths in the framework of the new asset of urban contexts.

2Among the changes related to the introduction of Roman customs, the transformation of the public bath structures from Greek type (βαλανεῖα) to the Roman one (thermae) stand out (De Laine, 1989). The Greek hot baths were strictly related to specific social issues concerning customs and traditions, with specific cross references with medical-philosophical beliefs (Flemming, 2013). The Roman thermae will develop peculiar models over two centuries, between the end of the repubblica and the beginning of the Empire, until the assessment of the famous “Pompeian type” (i.e.: characterized by hypocaustum floors and aligned rooms usually identified as apodyterium, frigidarium, tepidarium and caldarium) which, with the necessary changes, is still in use both in West (natural and artificial spa) and East (hammams).

3In this respect, the dual interpretation of an abrupt introduction of new models vs a likely gradual transformation of the hot bath culture from Greek to Roman Ages is in the light of the current researches. Actually, the archaeological literature suggests a probable mobility of craftsmen and materials within the Roman provinces. However, the pointing out of possible routes leading ideas, men and materials in the southern Tyrrhenian Sea, as well as the reviewing of technological and typological features of bricks produced and/or imported and traded in Sicily during the late Hellenistic Age, need additionally efforts (Bukowiecki et al., 2016). As a matter of fact, between the end of the late 3rd and the 2nd centuries B.C., bricks spread in the Roman architecture through the use of Greek metrological standards (Righini, 1999), with therefore a commingling of Roman building models and construction techniques intrinsically linked to Greek skills and expertise.

4The possibility to examine the development of thermal structures in different centres of a specific Roman Province might fill these gaps and give credible reply to the aforementioned questions. In these perspectives, the northern sector of Sicily appears to be an adequate case study, exhibiting peculiar centres such as Solunto (Campagna, 2007; Mistretta, 2013; Portale, 2006; Portale, 2007b; Sposito, 2014; Wolf, 2003; Wolf, 2012), Taormina (Campagna, 2011a; Campagna, 2011b; Campagna & La Torre 2008; Muscolino, 2009; Muscolino, 2013) and Tindari (Aiosa, 2010; La Torre, 2005; Leone & Spigo, 2008; Portale, 2015; Spigo, 2005; Torre, 2019), where the archaeological interpretation has been recently reviewed in the light of an in deep analysis of the archaeological remains. The interest towards these three centres is out of fortuity. Firstly, they are considered to be among the first towns in Sicily in which Roman thermae were established; moreover, the sites are tied by geographical position and historical events, exhibiting also ancient bath structures characterised by similar typology and dating (e.g., Tindari and Taormina corresponded to two of the five Augustan colonies of Sicily); additionally, Solunto and Tindari, enjoyed an excellent state of conservation of the Hellenistic-Roman plan, being the archaeological areas not been occupied by modern urban structures.

5With these premises, the present research is focused on the characterization of building materials, namely bricks and tiles, from the thermal structures of Solunto, Taormina and Tindari with the aim to re-examine the archaeological interpretations in the light of archaeometric analysis and to provide new insights on circulation of materials, models and technological routines among Sicilian centres, as well as from South-Centre Italy toward Sicily.

Archaeological framework

6During the late Hellenistic Age, Sicily experienced a lively cultural moment; different areas of the island were in fact interested by the simultaneous occupancy of Greeks, Carthaginians and Romans, even though the Greek koinè permeated the local culture. Between 2nd-1st centuries B.C., the northern coast of Sicily was interested by a flourishing economic growth, associated with a renewal of urbanization: in such a context, the circulation of goods, men and ideas in the area of the lower Tyrrhenian sea comes without surprise (Wilson, 2013). New building models imported in the island were intertwined to ancient architectural traditions, metrological standards and construction techniques (Wilson, 1979; Torre, 2019). Alongside this coastline, the centers of Solunto, Taormina, Tindari stand out.

7The site of Solunto (Cutroni Tusa et al., 1994; Wolf, 2003; Portale, 2006; Mistretta, 2013; Sposito, 2014; Polizzi & Torre, 2019), located near Palermo in an area under the Carthaginian control, hosts a bath complex known as the “Piccole Terme” (Figure 1.a) and built in the 2nd B.C. as a Greek βαλανεῖον. The archaeological researches demonstrated that between the end of the 1st B.C. and the beginning of the 1st A. D. the building was renewed according to the new models designed within the southern Lazio and Campania (Pompei, e.g. the “Terme del Foro”), as evidenced by the plan and by the presence of a hypocaustum, whose pilae have comparison in Vesuvian region. Unfortunately, the first building phase, it is well documented only in the laconicum of the Gymnasium (2nd-1st B.C.), while no clues regarding the roof system are available. The structure has comparison in the north-east Sicily (Alesa, Taormina) as well as in the Tyrrenian coast of Magna Grecia (Caulonia) and Italy (Fregelle, Massa), although further studies should be useful to clarify their origin and chronology (Tsiolis, 2013). During the second half of the 1st A. D., the “Piccole Terme” were converted into Roman-type bath (with the usual set of aligned rooms: apodyterium, frigidarium, and tepidarium, caldarium), remaining in use at least until the 3rd A. D.

8Similarly, the “Terme del Foro” in Taormina (Figure 1.b), a thermal structure in the heart of the ancient greek polis of Tauromenion (near the agora, later converted into the roman foro, not far from the theatre) were originally thought to be an imperial bath building construction (Pelagatti, 1962; Pelagatti 1964; Bacci 1984-1985; Belvedere, 1988; Wilson, 1990). However, recent researches have unveiled an early phase (2nd-1stc. B.C.) in which bricks types recovered also in Solunto and employed there for the construction of vaults in βαλανεῖα are attested in the western praefurnium. This latter structure was built during a third phase (2nd A.D.), after the construction of the roman-type bath, probably dated back to the 1st A. D. (second phase), by reusing part of the local construction materials. The Roman baths remained in use until Late Antiquity, when the area was first occupied by other structures and by a necropolis up to the end of the 13th c. (Bacci, 1980-1981).

9Slightly changing chronology, the “Terme dell' insula IV” in Tindari (Figure 1.c) represents one of the most well preserved building demonstrating the definitive acquisition of the roman bath model (Brea & Cavalier, 1965; Belvedere & Termine, 2004; La Torre, 2005; Aiosa, 2010; Torre 2019). They were built in the first half of the 1st A. D. by transforming a previous private building (first half/half of the 2nd B.C.), directly connected to the main street (the so called “decumanus/plateia superiore”), which was located on the south terrace of the insula and to the nearby “Basilica” (Spigo, 2005). The baths, probably related to a collegium as evidenced by the presence of mosaics depicting the symbols of the ancient city of Tindari and of the roman province, were used with few changes - specifically concerning the decorative equipment rather than the structures - until Late Antiquity (6-7th A. D.), when Byzantine dwellings were built at higher levels.

Figure 1: Planimetry and construction phases of studied thermal structures in (a) Solunto, (b) Taormina and (c) Tindari / Figure 1 : Planimétrie et phases de construction des structures thermiques étudiées en (a) Solunto, (b) Taormina et (c) Tindari

Figure 1: Planimetry and construction phases           of studied thermal structures in (a) Solunto, (b) Taormina and (c)           Tindari / Figure 1 : Planimétrie et phases de           construction des structures thermiques étudiées en (a) Solunto, (b)           Taormina et (c) Tindari

Geological framework

10The three studied sites are located in different geological context of Sicily (Figure 2). Overall, the geological structure of the island shows the geo-morphological traits of a collisional belt consisting in distinct units including metamorphic nappes, carbonate rocks, oceanic to quasi-oceanic deposits and Tertiary siliciclastic rocks (Lentini et al., 1995). This complex arrangement is completed by a vast volcanic activity of which Mt Etna is the more evident expression.

Figure 2: Localization of the archaeological sites and geological sketch map of Sicily / Figure 2 : Localisation des sites archéologiques et carte d'esquisse géologique de la Sicile

Figure 2: Localization of the archaeological           sites and geological sketch map of Sicily / Figure           2 : Localisation des sites archéologiques et carte d'esquisse           géologique de la Sicile

11In detail, the area of Tindari is characterized by medium high grade metamorphic basements and by sedimentary covers, in which Plio-Pleistocenic clays assume an important role for the purpose of this research, since they were widely used in pottery productions in antiquity (Barone et al., 2005). The metamorphic basement outcrops also in the area of Taormina that, however, it is close to the basaltic lava flows of the east flank of Mt. Etna. The alluvial sediments of the Alcantara River, flowing near the archaeological site, reflect this complex geological framework being characterized by both volcanic and low – medium grade metamorphic rock fragments. Finally, Solunto is located on the slopes of Madonie Mountains formed by Mesozoic limestones and by nappes of shales and silico-clastic flysches; the old city was built on Plio-Pleistocenic deposits, largely used in the local pottery productions (Montana et al., 2009).

2. Materials and methods

Suspensurae, tiles, bricks and architectural elements

12The studied materials include n. 44 fragments, consisting in suspensurae, tiles, bricks and architectural elements sampled from Solunto, Taormina and Tindari bath buildings; the selection criteria were based on the typological classification of materials as well as on their macroscopic features, namely color, body paste and occurrence of inclusions, when detectable by naked-eye observation.

13Samples from Solunto (Figure 3.a-c) (15 specimens) consist in suspensurae (n. 4 fragments: Sol05, Sol06, Sol 12, Sol 15), tiles and bricks from laconicum (n. 4 fragments; Sol 02, Sol 07, Sol 08, Sol 09), bricks from prefurnium (n. 3 fragments; Sol 01, Sol 04, Sol 10), along with a bessale from calidarium (n. 1 fragment, Sol 11), a bipedale and a hexagonal brick from tepidarium (n. 2 fragments, respectively Sol 03 and Sol 14) and a brick from the room with a bench in the “Piccole Terme” (n.1 fragment, Sol13).

14Regarding samples from the “Terme del Foro” in Taormina (Figure 3.d-e) (17 specimens), they consist in suspensurae (n. 3 fragments, Tao 02, Tao 03, Tao 13), tiles (n. 4 fragments; Tao 08, Tao 12, Tao 14, Tao15), praefurnium’s bricks, a tubulo from calidarium (n. 5 fragments; Tao 09, Tao 09bis, Tao 09ter, Tao14, and Tao 01), and bricks from the walls (n. N. 5 fragments; Tao 05, Tao 6, Tao 07, Tao 10, Tao 11).

15Among the selected fragments from Tindari (Figure 3.f-h) (13 specimens), noteworthy is the presence of circular (diam.: 0,29-38 m; thick.: 0,08-10 m) and rectangular bricks with stamps: these consist of different-shaped stamps (Tyn07-08-09) showing inscriptions which style and figurative elements would suggest local production from different workshops. As far as the other fragments, they were mostly taken from the thermae: Tyn01, fragment of tubulo from the calidarium; Tyn03, circular brick from the preafurnium; Tyn02, 04 and 06, bricks from north courtyard of the thermae; Tyn05 and 12, suspensurae from another bath building located North to the Decumanus; Tyn 13, fragment from an architectural element (a capital from Insula IV).

Figure 3: Representative samples of bricks from the investigated thermal buildings. (a-c) Solunto; (d-e) Taormina and (f-h) Tindari / Figure 3 : Échantillons représentatifs de briques provenant des bâtiments thermiques étudiés. (a-c) Solunto ; (d-e) Taormina et (f-h) Tindari.

Figure 3: Representative samples of bricks           from the investigated thermal buildings. (a-c) Solunto; (d-e)           Taormina and (f-h) Tindari / Figure 3 : Échantillons représentatifs           de briques provenant des bâtiments thermiques étudiés. (a-c)           Solunto ; (d-e) Taormina et (f-h) Tindari.

(a-c) Solunto; (d-e) Taormina and (f-h) Tindari. / (a-c) Solunto ; (d-e) Taormina et (f-h) Tindari.

Experimental

16Petrographic classification (following Whitbread 1995) was performed by thin section observation through a Nikon Eclipse E400 POL optical microscope. X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns were collected on not oriented powders by using a SIEMENS D5000 diffractometer (measurement conditions: Cu Kα source, Ni filter, 40kV voltage, 30mA current, 2°- 45° 2θrange, 0.02° 2θ step, 2 second/per step). Petrographic and mineralogical information were complemented by micro-morphological observation on small fragments by using an electron scanning microscope (SEM) Tescan Vega LMU (equipped with EDAX Neptune XM4-60); evaluation about vitrification degree and firing temperature are thus proposed according to Maniatis & Tite (1982).

17Chemical composition was obtained by X-ray fluorescence analysis (XRF) on pressed pellets; a PHILIPS PW 2404/00 spectrometer was used for the analysis. Major (SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MnO, MgO, CaO, Na2O, K2O, P2O5- wt%) and minor and trace elements (V, Cr, Co, Ni, Zn, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Ba, La, Ce, Pb, Th - ppm) were determined with precision of 5% and accuracy of < 3% for major element and < 5% for trace elements. Obtained results were processed and compared with reference data (clays and ceramics) by using a well-established method on archaeological samples according to Aitchison (1986) and by using a CoDaPack software (Thio-Henestrosa and Martin Fernandez, 2005).

3. Results and discussions

Minero-petrographic features vs typology

Solunto’s “Piccole Terme”

18Thin section observation allowed discriminating two main petrographic fabrics (namely Fabric SOL-A and SOL-B), along with few samples exhibiting peculiar compositional and textural features.

19Fabric SOL-A includes samples from the laconiucum of the Gymnasium (Sol-02, 09, 11; Figure 4.a); it is characterized by homogeneous groundmass with fine/very-fine grained quartz and chert fragments (<0.1 mm). Inclusions (5-10%), irregular in shape, are due to chamotte fragments exhibiting an open spatial distribution and a polymodal grain size (from 0.3 mm to 1 mm).

20Fabric SOL-B includes different typologies of bricks, from suspensurae to building bricks (samples labeled as Sol 03, 04, 05, 07, 08, 12, 13, 15; Figure 4.b). These specimens are characterized by slight heterogeneous groundmass, from fine to very fine quartz and chert (< 0.1 mm), with the occurrence of quartz-arenite rock fragments (from 0.3 to 1 mm) and argillaceous clay clots. In addition, samples Sol-04 and Sol-05 exhibit in their microstructure abundant fossil molds, while from the compositional point of view fragments of micritic carbonates, few chamotte fragments, along with rounded quartz with dimension of about 1 mm in diameter, can be recognized.

Figure 4: Thin section and SEM images of some representative studied samples / Figure 4 : Images sur lame fine et au MEB de quelques échantillons représentatifs étudiés

Figure 4: Thin section and SEM images of             some representative studied samples / Figure 4 :             Images sur lame fine et au MEB de             quelques échantillons représentatifs étudiés

(a, Sol-02; b, Sol-12; c, Sol-06) Solunto, (d, Tao-02; e, Tao-05; f, Tao-09) Taormina and (g, Tyn-13; h, Tyn-08; Tyn-11) Tindari. / (a, Sol-02, b, Sol-12, c, Sol-06) Solunto, (d, Tao-02, e, Tao-05, f, Tao -09) Taormina et (g, Tyn-13; h, Tyn-08 ; Tyn-11) Tindari.

21The petrographic discrimination between Fabrics SOL-A and SOL-B seems to provide a validation of some archaeological evidences. In fact, the similarities emerged among tiles from loconicum (Fabric SOL-A) might suggest the employment of a unique batch of bricks for the construction of the vault in the 2nd century B.C., by using credibly local raw materials. It has been stressed, in fact, the occurrence of rounded quartz grains along with chert and quartz-arenite fragments, attributable to clay deposits close the ancient Solunto (Belvedere et al., 2009). The same correlation between clay paste and geological context can be suggested for bessali and bricks exhibiting dimension and shape compatible with the well-known Sicilian production of rectangular sesquipedali and grouped in petrographic fabric SOL-B. Even similar in composition and texture, this assemblage of bricks pertains to different construction phases; this evidence has, of course, interesting archaeological implications, suggesting a continuity in raw material supply and manufacture routine over the time in the development of the buildings of the thermal structure.

22The suspensurae labeled as Sol-06 (Fabric SOL-C; Figure 4.c) is distinguished for the presence of inclusions (5-10%) consisting in alkaline volcanic rock fragments (mineralogical assemblage: leucite, olivine, clinopyroxene, plagioclase with porphyry texture), which mineralogical identity allow to locate this production in central Italy, geologically dominated by alkaline volcanic provinces (Peccerillo, 2005).

23The brick from prefurnium named Sol-10 (Fabric SOL-D) is characterized by heterogeneous groundmass enriched in abundant and tiny hematite-stained clay clots. Inclusions (5%) are due to polycrystalline metamorphic rock fragments and fractured quartz. In this case, the occurrence aplastic inclusions which mineralogical identity appears far from the local geology might suggest a connection with the north-eastern Sicilian area, where the production of bricks by using local raw materials characterized by metamorphic inclusions is largely attested.

24Other two samples are not assigned to any of the previous petrographic fabrics. The hexagonal brick named Sol-14 is characterized by absence of inclusions and a carbonate-rich groundmass, with very-fine/fine quartz and chert fragments (<0.1 mm) (Fabric SOL-E). Otherwise, sample Sol-01, consisting in an isolated tile characterized by abundant argillaceous clay clots, micritic fossils and fine/very fine quartz (<0.1 mm); aplastic inclusions are mainly rounded in shape, due to chert and highly fractured quartz (Fabric SOL-F).

25From the technological point of view, materials belonging to Fabric SOL-A and SOL-B were manufactured by using credibly local sediments fired at medium-high temperature, as testified by the initial/extensive vitrification of clay paste, low birefringence of groundmass and mineralogical composition (see Table 1). In the case of specific typologies, such as vault bricks, prefurnium brick and hexagonal bricks, belonging to the other petrographic fabrics, different compositional and textural features have been observed, suggesting the employment of specialized manufacture solutions for specific purposes. In this respect, it is possible to assume that an accurate production routine, with a variability of raw materials and technological expedient in respect to use were assessed.

Table 1: Table summarizing petrographic and mineralogical (XRD) data, along with information obtained from petrographic and micro-morphological observations / Tableau 1 : Tableau résumant les données pétrographiques et minéralogiques (DRX), avec les informations obtenues à partir des observations pétrographiques et micro-morphologiques

Table 1: Table summarizing petrographic and             mineralogical (XRD) data, along with information obtained from             petrographic and micro-morphological observations / Tableau 1 : Tableau résumant les données             pétrographiques et minéralogiques (DRX), avec les informations             obtenues à partir des observations pétrographiques et             micro-morphologiques

Abbreviations: Qz: quartz; Cc: calcite; CM: clay minerals; An/Ab: anorthite/albite; Gh: ghelenite; Kfeld: feldspar; Bir.: birefringence; CaO wt%: from XRF data. / Abréviations : Qz: quartz; Cc: calcite; CM: minéraux argileux ; An / Ab: anorthite / albite; Gh: gélénite; Kfeld: feldspath; Bir. : biréfringence; CaO% en poids: à partir des données XRF.

Taormina’s “Terme del Foro”

26Samples from Taormina are overall characterized by very heterogeneous clay matrix, reflecting a possible natural variation in term of composition, color and texture of sediment employed in the manufacture of bricks. In spite of this general features, two petrographic fabrics can be discriminated on the basis of slight variations, especially looking at groundmass features. The fabric named TAO-A (including samples Tao-01, 02, 03, 05, 06, 07, 08, 10, 11, 15; Figure 4.d-e) exhibits an heterogeneous clay-silt matrix, from carbonate-rich to Fe- and mica-rich in composition, with abundant argillaceous clays clots. On the contrary, in fabric named TAO-B (Tao-09, 09/bis, 09/ter, 12, 13, 14; Figure 4.f) groundmass appears more homogeneous, especially in term of composition (mainly mica-rich) and texture. Apart from these variations, in both fabrics, inclusions are due to the exclusive or concomitant occurrence of volcanic and metamorphic rock fragments. The former consists in basaltic rock fragments, with porphyry texture and intergranular structure, including plagioclase, olivine and pyroxene; volcanic scoria, exhibiting porphyry texture and intergranular - hypocrystalline structure are also present. The latter are due quartzite and gneiss fragments, with a mineralogical assemblage characterized by quartz, feldspar, biotite, muscovite, opaque minerals.

27Sample Tao-04 differs from the previously described petrographic fabrics; it is characterized by a homogenous fossil-rich (mainly foraminifera and mollusk fragments) fabric, with quartz inclusions, abundant argillaceous and hematite clays clots, limestone fragments and mica.

28Starting from minero-petrographic data, some interesting implication can be discussed, regarding both provenance of raw materials and technology, allowing also to support hypothesis on construction phases of the investigated structure.

29The occurrence of volcanic inclusions with structure and texture typical of Etna basalts is reported as common feature in local ceramic and brick productions (Bruno & Capelli, 2006). In the studied materials, the high heterogeneity and the clay-silt composition of clay matrix might suggest the natural occurring of both volcanic and metamorphic aplastic fractions.

30In this perspective, the most reliable hypothesis, especially for samples belonging to Fabric TAO-A, addresses the use of alluvia in areas close to Taormina, along the Alcantara Valley, where both volcanic and metamorphic outcrops are eroded and transported with natural volcanic sands deposited during the Volcano’s eruptions (usually occurring in form of scoria). From the historical and archaeological point of view, the employment of these sediments might be related to the use of non-modified raw materials, possibly due to a boost production request for a new construction phase of the thermal structure; actually, the assemblage of bricks included in Fabric TAO-A is assigned to a recent construction phase. Anyway, it is not possible to exclude that bricks were manufactured in the well-known workshops located in Naxos and specialized in the production of sesquipedali between 1st B.C. and 1st A.D. (Lentini & Muscolino, 2013).

31Samples belonging to Fabric TAO-B differs from the former both from petrographic features, function and dating; in fact, this assemblage (except for samples Tao-13) refers to an ancient system of thermae, which it is still partially preserved and included in the more recent building structures.

32The differences in term of petrographic and manufacture features might, therefore, reflect the involvement of different workshops during the different construction phases of the “Terme del Foro”.

33Summarizing, the majority of studied bricks seems to be made by using alluvial deposits fired at low temperatures, as testified by both high optical birefringence of the groundmass, mineralogical composition and no vitrification (see Table 1). Only in some case, referred to the earlier construction phases, the clay paste appear vitrified, without any clear correlation with specific brick typologies.

Tindari’s Terme dell'Insula IV

34Among the studied assemblage of bricks, samples from Tindari exhibit the wider variation in term of shape (quadrangular, rectangular and circular bricks); moreover, they are the unique set in which stamps can be recognized, some of them clearly reported in the archaeological literature (Brugnone & Cavalier, 1986).

35As far as petrographic features, five groups can be discriminated based on both groundmass and inclusions features. A mica-rich clay matrix with fine quartz, and polycrystalline rock fragments inclusions characterize Fabric TYA-A, which samples exhibit slightly variations in term of groundmass color and texture. In this perspective, two sub-fabrics can be discriminated: the first one includes building elements, namely a tubule and a capital (named Tyn01 and Tyn13; Figure 4.g), characterized by a reddish mica-rich clay matrix and a high amount of inclusions (60%); the second one groups three stamped bricks (Tyn07, Ποσειδισ; Tyn08, Αφρδισιοσ; Tyn09, Αριστον; Figure 4.h) and it is characterized by heterogeneous clay matrix with micas exhibiting preferred orientation and a lower thickening (about 30-35%). In both, the aplastic fraction is due to metamorphic rock fragments, from phyllite to gneiss, and plutonic rock fragments, mainly granitic. This homogeneous set of materials, even considering the internal variability, provides valuable insights about local production routines and technological choice. First of all, the different clay paste and sorting of aggregates employed in the manufacture of the building architectural elements (i.e.: the capital and the tubule) is out of fortuity; special pieces needed peculiar practical solution to both reduce possible cracking and assure good plasticity to the paste. The occurrence of metamorphic rock fragments compatible with the local geologic framework suggests a possible in situ production of these pieces. The affinities of stamped bricks with this group of objects, credibly local as well, provide clues on the lively production activity in the city, with the assessment of different workshops (identified by the different stamps reported on bricks) probably exploiting the same clayey sediments and applying common manufacture technologies. Actually, the probable local production of these bricks was already suggested by the iconography of stamps; illustrative is the case of the two piloi reported on Tyn08 brick, representing Greek divinities largely venerated in Tindari.

36Two suspensurae (Tyn05 and Tyn12) and a rectangular brick (Tyn02) are grouped in a carbonate-rich fabric (TYN-B), with a clay matrix exhibiting very fine quartz, fossils and micrite fragments. Aplastic fraction exhibits low thickening; it is due to metamorphic (mineralogical assemblage: quartz, microcline, muscovite, amphibole, opaque minerals) and plutonic rock fragments. Additionally, the occurrence of secondary calcite and abundant hematite stained clots can be observed. Also in this case, the occurrence of aplastic fraction compatible with the local geology allows to hypothesize a local production.

37Fabric named TYN-C includes two circular bricks (Tyn06 and Tyn10) and a brick displaying the stamp Αγαθοκλεοc Ρηγινου (Tyn11; Figure 4.i). These samples are characterized by a mica-rich clay matrix and the presence of polycrystalline rock fragments (both metamorphic and magmatic), along with abundant argillaceous clay clots and scarce micrite carbonatic fragments in the paste. As expected, because of their shape, circular bricks are characterized by a preferred orientation of mica and voids. Samples are also interested by secondary calcite, filling the voids. This set of bricks is of particular interest; in fact, it comprises a stamped brick with a clear topographic reference to the Southern Calabria area (Tyn11) and a circular brick with a bad preserved stamp (Tyn10). However, the slight differences in respect to the previous materials supposed to be local, suggest a possible import of them from the areas beyond the Messina Strait.

38The two quadrangular bricks named Tyn03 and Tyn04 differ from previous described fabrics and each other’s. The first one exhibits a fossil-rich fabric (TYN-D), with a yellow-ochre groundmass and polycrystalline rock fragments consisting in schist and gneiss (with quartz, microcline, muscovite, biotite, chlorite/sericite, garnet and tourmaline), along with marbles. Similar features, even with slight differences in term of clay matrix color and texture, can be observed in sample Tyn04, characterized by a fossil-rich fabric with abundant spherical voids and light brown groundmass, with aplastic fraction due to metamorphic rock fragments (schist and gneiss) (Fabric TYN-E). In this case, the solely petrographic data do not provide any clear indication regarding the localization of raw material supply, even if a compatibility with local geological sources can be suggested.

39Overall, all bricks from Tindari were manufactured by using calcareous clays, tempered with metamorphic and magmatic rock fragments, partially pertaining also to the original clay sediment. The slightly variations in term of sorting of aggregates, features of groundmass and manufacture routines can be associated to the different workshops probably active in the city during the investigated period, as testified by the numerous stamps observed. As regard technology, suspensurae were fired at temperature high enough to vitrify the clay paste (see Table 1), while as far as bricks, no systematic technological routine seems to be applied; they exhibit in fact from initial to extensive vitrification, regardless use and/or workshops. The final feeling is that in view of an accurate selection of raw materials and mixing of clay pastes, no specific requirements was committed in the manufacture routine.

The contribute of geochemical analysis to provenance studies

40In spite of valuable information provided by the minero-petrographic features, allowing to assess the possible compatibility with specific geological sources of raw materials, the addressing of provenance issue is usually subordinated to the comparison of studied materials with reference groups of artifacts and clay sediments. In this sense, geochemistry and statistical treatment of data might confirm and/or discard preliminary hypotheses.

41Chemical data of studied bricks and tiles (Table 2) were thus compared by using statistical approach with possible clay sources and reference ceramics groups from Solunto (Montana et al., 2009), Taormina (Belfiore et al., 2010) and Tindari (Venetico and Spatafora clays – unpublished data). It has to be noticed that sample Sol-06 was excluded from the comparative evaluation since its petrographic fingerprint allows to collocate its origin and manufacture out of Sicily.

Table 2: Chemical data of studied samples / Tableau 2. Compositions chimiques des échantillons étudiés

Table 2: Chemical data of studied samples /           Tableau 2. Compositions chimiques des           échantillons étudiés

Major elements are reported in wt%, minor elements are in ppm. The chemical data reported have been recalculated to 100% on volatile-free basis. / Les principaux éléments sont indiqués en wt%, les éléments mineurs en ppm. Les données chimiques rapportées ont été recalculées à 100  % sur une base exempte de la perte au feu.

42The biplot of the first two principal components (Figure 5) shows a clear separation between Solunto’s bricks and north-eastern Sicilian areas productions (Tindari and Taormina), in accordance with petrographic observations.

Figure 5: Biplot of chemical data reporting studied samples along with reference clays and ceramic artifacts / Figure 5 : Diagramme binaire issu de l'analyse en composantes principales des compositions chimiques des échantillons étudiés avec des argiles de référence et des artefacts en céramique

Figure 5: Biplot of chemical data reporting           studied samples along with reference clays and ceramic artifacts /           Figure 5 : Diagramme binaire issu de l'analyse en           composantes principales des compositions chimiques des échantillons           étudiés avec des argiles de référence et des artefacts en           céramique

43As far as samples from the “Piccole Terme” in Solunto, the similarities of petrographic and geochemical features with reference materials of certain local production, characterized by monocrystalline rounded quartz, chert, and quartz-arenite fragments and CaO wt% levels of about 7-9%, allow to identify in the Pleistocene deposits named Argille di Ficarazzi Fm. (outcropping along the coast from Palermo to Solunto) the raw materials source. Actually Argille di Ficarazzi Fm. is reported as clay for ceramics manufacture from Archaic to Hellenistic age (Montana et al., 2006; Montana et al., 2009).

44Bricks from “Terme dell'Insula IV” in Tindari were compared with Spatafora and Venetico Pleistocene marly grey-blue clays (Lentini & Carbone, 2014; chemical unpublished data), following the archaeological hypothesis and the evidences of kilns devoted to the manufacture of bricks since 3rd B.C. (Torre, 2019) nearby these outcrops. Actually, the composition of the majority of Tindari’s bricks match with these clayey sediments, exhibiting average SiO2 levels from 55% to 63% and CaO levels from 7 to 17%. As expected, no clear chemical discrimination between supposed local productions and Calabrian ones (Tyn06, Tyn10 and Tyn11) are claimed by geochemical plots, due to the similarities between Sicilian and South Italian areas in term of geological outcrops.

45Finally, concerning Taormina bricks, the hypothesis regarding a local production find a proof in the good match with reference groups, for which manufacture the employment of Pleistocene clays and tempers from the Alcantara River Valley can be suggested (Belfiore et al., 2009). On the basis of the observed textural features, it is possible to suppose that clayey sediments were exploited in trenches established within alluvia of the Alcantara river, transporting into and throughout the valley parental rocks compatible with bricks inclusions, until emerging into Naxos area where kilns for ceramic artifacts manufacture were largely attested (Bruno & Capelli 2006; Lentini & Muscolino, 2013).

4. Conclusions

46The minero-petrographic analyses carried out on bricks and tiles from thermal baths in Solunto, Tindari and Taormina made it possible to correlate the studied materials with local productions, with the exception of the sample Sol 06, credibly imported from Central Italy, and Tyn06, Tyn10 and Tyn11 samples, suggesting a mobility of goods from Calabrian area to Tindari. Chemical data improved knowledge on the possible sources of raw materials, even if a more extensive sampling might provide a wider and comprehensive overview on brick production including peculiar typologies addressed to bath structures.

47One interesting research perspective is offered by the location of Sol06 brick provenance in Central Italy; even if it represents a single item, the archaeological excavation evidenced the occurrence in the site of numerous bricks similar for clay paste features, so that wider archaeological hypothesis can be discussed.

48The general idea is that Campanian and Latium models were imitated in architectural models and materials were imported in an early construction phase (between the 1st B. C. and the 1st A. D.) of the so-called “Piccole Terme” at Solunto, claiming a possible mobility of craftsmen, expertise and materials from Centre Italy to Sicily during the transition from Greek baths to Roman thermae.

49Another interesting perspective is related to the presence, both in Solunto and Taormina, of local productions of specific typologies devoted to the construction of vaults, which find comparisons with the brick vault attested in the second phase of bath in Fregelle (Lancaster, 2015). Starting from these observations, numerous aspects related to both architectural models and social and economic dynamics during the establishment of new models for the construction of buildings, undoubtedly, had to be re-considered.

50Overall, in the island, the production of bricks and their use could have started since the mid-3rd B.C. as a consequence of the urban development that involves all the centres of the northern coast of Sicily. In terms of the availability of resources and economy, the convenience of such use is evident and it has been recently underlined (Torre, 2019), even if some aspects needs further investigations, including the frame of the relations with Central Italy as well as the connection with the Tyrrhenian coast of Calabria. Nevertheless, the presence in Lipari Island and Reggio Calabria of bricks reporting the stamp “Αγαθοκλεοσ Ρηγινου” and architectural models similar to the ones established in Tindari, open new unsolved questions related to the identification and the exact location of this workshops, along with the relation of this area with the wider south-Italian scenario.

51Summarizing, the final frame is a mix of experiences, in situ and ex-situ, as testified by the recognition of both lively local workshops and import routines from Central and South Italy, where models and technologies were already experimented. Thus, once more, the paradigm of “Romanization” in Sicily can be reinterpreted and enriched, underling its character of gradual substitution of architectural models with an outstanding continuity in local culture and productions (Barone et al., 2016a; Barone et al., 2016b). Among the obtained results, the re-examination of the three case studies, allows to reinforce the hypothesis that Sicily plays a key-role in the process of transmission and reception of the new Roman cultural, social and architectonic models. The phenomenon is therefore much more articulated than we thought, with different actors who played a role in a world constantly stretched between the Greek thought and the Roman political power.

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Table des illustrations

Titre Figure 1: Planimetry and construction phases of studied thermal structures in (a) Solunto, (b) Taormina and (c) Tindari / Figure 1 : Planimétrie et phases de construction des structures thermiques étudiées en (a) Solunto, (b) Taormina et (c) Tindari
URL http://journals.openedition.org/archeosciences/docannexe/image/6686/img-1.jpg
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Titre Figure 2: Localization of the archaeological sites and geological sketch map of Sicily / Figure 2 : Localisation des sites archéologiques et carte d'esquisse géologique de la Sicile
URL http://journals.openedition.org/archeosciences/docannexe/image/6686/img-2.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 931k
Titre Figure 3: Representative samples of bricks from the investigated thermal buildings. (a-c) Solunto; (d-e) Taormina and (f-h) Tindari / Figure 3 : Échantillons représentatifs de briques provenant des bâtiments thermiques étudiés. (a-c) Solunto ; (d-e) Taormina et (f-h) Tindari.
Légende (a-c) Solunto; (d-e) Taormina and (f-h) Tindari. / (a-c) Solunto ; (d-e) Taormina et (f-h) Tindari.
URL http://journals.openedition.org/archeosciences/docannexe/image/6686/img-3.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 1,2M
Titre Figure 4: Thin section and SEM images of some representative studied samples / Figure 4 : Images sur lame fine et au MEB de quelques échantillons représentatifs étudiés
Légende (a, Sol-02; b, Sol-12; c, Sol-06) Solunto, (d, Tao-02; e, Tao-05; f, Tao-09) Taormina and (g, Tyn-13; h, Tyn-08; Tyn-11) Tindari. / (a, Sol-02, b, Sol-12, c, Sol-06) Solunto, (d, Tao-02, e, Tao-05, f, Tao -09) Taormina et (g, Tyn-13; h, Tyn-08 ; Tyn-11) Tindari.
URL http://journals.openedition.org/archeosciences/docannexe/image/6686/img-4.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 2,1M
Titre Table 1: Table summarizing petrographic and mineralogical (XRD) data, along with information obtained from petrographic and micro-morphological observations / Tableau 1 : Tableau résumant les données pétrographiques et minéralogiques (DRX), avec les informations obtenues à partir des observations pétrographiques et micro-morphologiques
Légende Abbreviations: Qz: quartz; Cc: calcite; CM: clay minerals; An/Ab: anorthite/albite; Gh: ghelenite; Kfeld: feldspar; Bir.: birefringence; CaO wt%: from XRF data. / Abréviations : Qz: quartz; Cc: calcite; CM: minéraux argileux ; An / Ab: anorthite / albite; Gh: gélénite; Kfeld: feldspath; Bir. : biréfringence; CaO% en poids: à partir des données XRF.
URL http://journals.openedition.org/archeosciences/docannexe/image/6686/img-5.png
Fichier image/png, 525k
Titre Table 2: Chemical data of studied samples / Tableau 2. Compositions chimiques des échantillons étudiés
Légende Major elements are reported in wt%, minor elements are in ppm. The chemical data reported have been recalculated to 100% on volatile-free basis. / Les principaux éléments sont indiqués en wt%, les éléments mineurs en ppm. Les données chimiques rapportées ont été recalculées à 100  % sur une base exempte de la perte au feu.
URL http://journals.openedition.org/archeosciences/docannexe/image/6686/img-6.png
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Titre Figure 5: Biplot of chemical data reporting studied samples along with reference clays and ceramic artifacts / Figure 5 : Diagramme binaire issu de l'analyse en composantes principales des compositions chimiques des échantillons étudiés avec des argiles de référence et des artefacts en céramique
URL http://journals.openedition.org/archeosciences/docannexe/image/6686/img-7.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 475k
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Simona Raneri, Rosa Torre, Paolo Mazzoleni, Chiara Portale et Germana Barone, « From βαλανεῖα to thermae: unveiling the transition from Greek to Roman architectural models of baths by technological and provenance archaeometric studies on bricks and tiles »ArcheoSciences, 43-2 | 2019, 187-202.

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Simona Raneri, Rosa Torre, Paolo Mazzoleni, Chiara Portale et Germana Barone, « From βαλανεῖα to thermae: unveiling the transition from Greek to Roman architectural models of baths by technological and provenance archaeometric studies on bricks and tiles »ArcheoSciences [En ligne], 43-2 | 2019, mis en ligne le 01 janvier 2023, consulté le 25 septembre 2023. URL : http://journals.openedition.org/archeosciences/6686 ; DOI : https://doi.org/10.4000/archeosciences.6686

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Auteurs

Simona Raneri

University of Pisa, Department of Earth Sciences, Via Santa Maria, 53, 56126, Pisa, Italy

Rosa Torre

Ph.D. University of Messina, Department of Ancient and Modern Civilizations, Viale Annunziata, 98168, Messina, Italy

Paolo Mazzoleni

University of Catania, Department of Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences, C.so Italia, 57, 95129 Catania, Italy

Chiara Portale

University of Palermo, Department of Culture and Society, Viale delle Scienze, Palermo, Italy

Germana Barone

University of Catania, Department of Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences, C.so Italia, 57, 95129 Catania, Italy. (gbarone@unict.it)

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