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Islamic Pottery from Ancient Termez (Uzbekistan): New Archaeological and Archaeometric Data

Céramique islamique de l'ancienne Termez (Ouzbékistan): nouvelles données archéologiques et archéométriques
Agnese Fusaro, Verónica Martínez Ferreras, Josep M. Gurt Esparraguera, Andreas Angourakis, Shakir R. Pidaev et Larisa Baratova
p. 249-264

Résumés

L'étude concerne la poterie islamique de Termez (sud de l'Ouzbékistan), et particulièrement celle datée du ixe au xiie siècle. La ville était un important centre urbain, le long de la Route de la Soie, et un centre de production céramique. Plusieurs ateliers ont été localisés dans la ville basse (shahristan) et dans ses faubourgs (rabad). Des céramiques glaçurées et non glaçurées, des pots, deux moules et deux vases sphéro-coniques ont été examinés par fluorescence de rayons X, diffraction de rayons X et du point de vue pétrographique. Des sédiments argileux provenant de différentes zones du site ont été aussi utilisés comme références locales pour comparaison. Notre objectif est de préciser la provenance des céramiques et de caractériser les techniques de production. Les résultats obtenus montrent que tous les échantillons ont été produits avec des argiles riches en CaO de composition similaire; cependant plusieurs groupes chimiques et pétrographiques ont été identifiés. La DRX indique que les températures de cuisson se situaient généralement entre 800 et 1000-1100 °C, cette dernière fourchette étant majoritaire. Les résultats de cette étude sont remarquables car les recherches archéométriques sur la poterie d'Asie centrale sont encore peu nombreuses.

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Entrées d’index

Géographique :

Asie centrale
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Texte intégral

Financial support for the research work presented was provided by three multidisciplinary projects: HAR2008-01730, led by J. M. Gurt Esparraguera, funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation; and CAMOTECCER (HAR2012-32653) and CERAC (HAR2016-75133-C3-1-P), led by V. Martínez Ferreras under the Ramón y Cajal programme (RYC-2014-15789), funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO). The research undertaken by A. Fusaro and A. Angourakis was conducted as part of the CAMOTECCER and CERAC projects (MINECO). The latter participated under the FPI pre-doctoral contract (BES-2013-062691, MINECO).

1. Introduction

1During the early Islamic period, pottery was widely produced in Central Asia, especially at important urban centres such as Samarqand, Bukhara, Akhsiket and Termez in nowadays Uzbekistan (Shishkina, 1979; Shishkina & Pavchinskaja, 1992; Nekrasova, 1999; Mirzaakhmedov, 2003; Henshaw, 2010; Houal, 2008, 2013), Balkh, Lashkari Bazar, and Ghazni in Afghanistan (Gardin, 1957, 1963; Fusaro, 2014; Siméon, forthcoming), Hulbuk in Tajikistan (Siméon, 2009, 2012, 2013), and Nishapur in Eastern Iran (Wilkinson, 1973; Rante & Collinet, 2013). In most of these centres, the manufacture of Islamic glazed and unglazed vessels is dated since the 8th-9th centuries.

2Archaeometric analyses on Central Asian Islamic pottery are scarce and mainly applied to coatings rather than fabrics. Moreover, in some cases, they are related to museums’ collections or pottery collected during surveys. Recent research works have been conducted on ceramics from the sites of Nishapur and Samarqand (Lazzarini et al., 1994; Mason, 2004: 121-155; Rante & Collinet, 2013; Müller-Wiener & Siméon, 2016), Akhsiket (Henshaw, 2010, Henshaw et al., 2006, Wang et al., 2009), and Jam, Afghanistan (Gaiscogne & Bridgman, 2010). Nonetheless, systematic and comprehensive archaeometric studies on Islamic wares from reliable stratigraphic contexts in Central Asia are still few.

3Contributing to fill this gap, the authors have recently performed an archaeological and archaeometric study on glazed and unglazed wares collected from stratigraphic excavations at the site of ancient Termez (southern Uzbekistan) and dated between the 9th and the 16th/17th centuries (Martínez et al., 2019a). The city was located on the southern border of the ancient region known as Mawarannahr in the Islamic period. It played a crucial political, economic, and military role in southern Central Asia due to its strategic position at one of the crossing points of the Amu Darya River and one of the intersections of the Silk Road. It was connected with Samarqand and Bukhara in the north and with Balkh in the south, and from there on with the Indian subcontinent through Afghanistan. Many different handicraft productions have been recognised in several quarters of the Islamic city, being the manufacture of pottery one of the most important, at least from the 9th century (Karimov, 2001: 70-72; Lesguer, 2015: 435-436).

4The research performed on Islamic vessels from ancient Termez includes their contextualisation, the examination of their morphological and decorative characteristics, and the chemical, mineralogical and petrographic characterisation of selected specimens. The study allowed: 1) to define the reference chemical groups and the petrographic fabrics for the local products; 2) to determine some technological processes involved in the pottery manufacture (clay procurement and processing, modelling, and firing); 3) to recognise imported vessels (Martínez et al., 2019a). Based on this preliminary research, we present herein the complete archaeometric characterisation of the ceramic categories produced and used at the city in the Islamic period (9th-early 13th centuries), including peculiar items such as the sphero-conical vessels.

5The macroscopic fabrics were first defined through the examination of the samples under the stereomicroscope. The chemical and petrographic composition was investigated by X-ray fluorescence (XRF-WD) and thin-section optical microscopy respectively, while the mineralogical composition was examined through X-ray Diffraction (XRD). The archaeometric data available on some raw materials collected at different areas of Termez have been used for comparison to determine the provenance of the vessels. Moreover, some technological processes of manufacture have been determined for all the pottery categories, allowing making inferences about their properties and performance characteristics. Besides expanding the study on the Islamic pottery productions at Termez, the final aim of the present study is to contribute to furthering our knowledge on Islamic pottery production and circulation in Central Asia.

2. Ancient Termez

6The archaeological site of ancient Termez lies along the Amu Darya river over the Amu Darya-Surkhan Darya floodplain (mean altitude 300 m), which forms part of the Afghan-Tajik depression. The floodplain comprises a Hercynian basement composed of Precambrian-Palaeozoic highly metamorphosed rocks and Permian-Triassic sedimentary and volcanic rocks. This basement is filled mainly by Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments. The predominant deposits at Termez consist of 1) lower Paleogene layers of carbonate and evaporite rocks (limestone, dolomite, and gypsum), and detrital rocks with carbonate intercalations (claystone, siltstone, sandstone, limestone with shells and marlstone), and 2) upper Miocene rocks and Pliocene sediments including sandstone, siltstone and claystone (Sánchez del Corral & Thum, 2012).

7Termez and the whole Mawarannahr were incorporated into the Umayyad caliphate in the early 8th century. During the 9th-10th centuries, under the Samanid dynasty, the city acquired importance as manufacture and trade centre, becoming an important port on the Amu Darya until the early 13th century. The city consisted of a large fortified urban complex comprising three main walled enclosures: the citadel, the lower town (shahristan), and the suburbs (rabad), where the main economic and manufacturing activities took place (Figure 1). During the conquest of Central Asia by the Mongols of Genghis Khan, the city was sacked and destroyed completely in 1220, although some parts were restored and used until the 16th/17th centuries (Karimov, 2001; Leriche & Pidaev, 2010: 182-184; Leriche, 2013: 155).

8As pottery production concerns, four workshops attributed to the Islamic period have been partially excavated by the MAFOuz Uzbek-French team (Lesguer, 2015). Two of them are located north of the rabad outside the defensive walls (Figure 1). One is represented by a circular kiln built with mud bricks and measuring 3.19 m of maximum diameter, to which is attributed the manufacture of large storage jars. 18 channels or pipes placed radiantly along the wall of the firebox connected this space with the firing chamber (2.11 m diameter). The second workshop is located to the north and comprises two kilns, one circular and the other with a trapezoidal shape. The firing chamber of the latter measures 4.9 m long and 3.5 m large, and the grid was supported by arches. These two kilns were specialised in the manufacture of glazed ceramics and sphero-conical vessels. A third workshop, recovered in the shahristan, comprises a circular kiln (3.30 m diameter) and a pottery dump. The firebox was connected to the firing chamber through 10 channels. According to the findings, this workshop produced unglazed moulded flasks and jugs with relief decoration and probably fine unglazed vessels. The fourth pottery workshop is located to the south-east of Tchingiz Tepe and comprises a pottery kiln built with mudbricks and dated to the 11th-12th centuries. The firing box measures 2.33 m long, and 2.20 m large, and the grid was supported by four arches. Given the small dimensions of this structure, it probably fired ceramics of rather a small size. This evidence suggests that several pottery workshops, specialised in producing different wares, were active in Termez at least during the 9th-12th centuries.

Figure 1: General map of ancient Termez (37°16’2” N, 67°11’24” E) (from Leriche & Pidaev, 2007: 183, Fig. 2; 203, Fig. 20), with the indication of the pottery workshops and the points of sampling of the clayey sediments / Figure 1 : Carte générale de l’ancienne Termez (37° 16’2” N, 67° 11’24” E) (d’après Leriche et Pidaev, 2007: 183, Fig. 2; 203, Fig. 20), avec l’indication des ateliers de poterie et des lieux d'échantillonnage des sédiments argileux

Figure 1: General map of ancient Termez         (37°16’2” N, 67°11’24” E) (from Leriche & Pidaev, 2007: 183, Fig.         2; 203, Fig. 20), with the indication of the pottery workshops and the         points of sampling of the clayey sediments / Figure         1 : Carte générale de l’ancienne Termez (37° 16’2” N, 67° 11’24” E)         (d’après Leriche et Pidaev, 2007: 183, Fig. 2; 203, Fig. 20), avec         l’indication des ateliers de poterie et des lieux d'échantillonnage         des sédiments argileux

9Recent archaeological surveys and excavations carried out by the Uzbek-Spanish IPAEB team provided new evidence of pottery production in Termez during the Islamic period. Indeed, since 2017 several workshops and kilns both outside the rabad and in the shahristan are the focus of a new project and several ceramics collected there are currently being analysed.

3. Sampling

Ceramic vessels

10The pottery assemblage investigated and presented herein includes 37 glazed and unglazed wares (Table I, Figure 2). 17 (coded TS) were recovered from the excavations conducted by L. Baratova in 2009 in the area of a pottery workshop in the shahristan. According to typological and stylistic criteria, they have been dated to the 9th-early 13th century. Despite the lack of archaeological information regarding the specific finding context of the vessels, it is possible to suggest that they could correspond to several productions of this ceramic workshop. The other 20 vessels (coded TA) were found in several contexts from sector AC2, excavated by the Uzbek-Spanish IPAEB team in 2009 in the alluvial plain. It is one of the westernmost contexts of the Islamic period investigatesd at Termez, and it consists in a refuse deposit formed over an earlier occupation on the ancient canal that connected the Surkhan Darya with the Amu Darya through Termez. The chronology proposed through the typological examination of the vessels suggests a quite long period of use (9th-11th/12th centuries). Apart from the vessels recovered at the shahristan, this study does not include any sample from the workshops mentioned above, since these contexts had not been included among the investigated areas of the Uzbek-Spanish team when this research was carried out.

Table I: Inventory of the vessels analysed / Tableau I : Inventaire des céramiques analysées

Sample

Archaeological


Context

Chronology

DESCRIPTION

TA2

AC2-SU11-4

9th-11th c.

Wheel-thrown, underglaze painted ware; hemispherical bowl; white slip, transparent colourless glaze, and underglaze painted red and brown decoration; fine fabric.

TA3

AC2-SU11-1

10th-11th c.

Wheel-thrown, slip-painted ware; hemispherical bowl with disc base; white slip, transparent colourless glaze, and underglaze slip-painted dark brown and light brown arabesque pattern; fine fabric.

TA4

AC2-SU11-2

10th-11th c.

Wheel-thrown, splashed sgraffiato ware; hemispherical bowl; white slip, transparent colourless glaze, with sgraffiato geometric and arabesque patterns and green-mustard-brown splashes; fine fabric.

TA5

AC2-SU12-2

9th-10th c.

Wheel-thrown, underglaze painted ware; hemispherical bowl; white slip, transparent colourless glaze, and underglaze painted brown, yellow and green decoration; fine fabric.

TA7

AC2-SU14-2

10th-11th c.

Wheel-thrown, splashed sgraffiato ware; bowl; white slip, transparent colourless glaze,with sgraffiato geometric decoration with grid pattern and green-mustard splashes; fine fabric.

TA8

AC2-SU15-2

9th-10th c.

Wheel-thrown, slip-painted ware; conical bowl; white slip, transparent colourless glaze, and underglaze slip-painted black pseudo-epigraphic band; fine fabric.

TA9

AC2-SU15-1

9th-11th c.

Wheel-thrown, underglaze painted ware; bowl; white slip, transparent colourless glaze, and underglaze painted red and black intertwined pattern; fine fabric.

TA10

AC2-SU16-1

9th-10th c.

Wheel-thrown, underglaze painted ware; hemispherical bowl; white slip, whitish glaze, and underglaze painted brown and green dotted pattern; fine fabric.

TA11

AC2-SU16-3

9th-10th c.

Wheel-thrown, slip-painted ware; conical bowl; white slip, transparent colourless glaze, and underglaze slip-painted black epigraphic band; fine fabric.

TA12

AC2-SU18-2

10th c.

Wheel-thrown, slip-painted ware; Conical shallow dish; dark brown slip, transparent colourless glaze, and underglaze slip-painted white dotted rosettes; fine fabric.

TA13

AC2-SU18

9th-11th c.

Wheel-thrown, underglaze painted ware; small fragment of bowl; white slip, transparent colourless glaze, and underglaze painted red and dark brown intertwined pattern; fine fabric. [no photo]

TA14

AC2-SU11-5

11th-12th c.

Unglazed large flat lid with finger impressed decoration on the rim; medium-fine yellowish fabric.

TA15

AC2-SU11-6

10th-12th c.

Unglazed wheel-thrown narrow-necked jug with vertical handle; medium-fine, yellowish fabric.

TA16

AC2-SU12-1

10th-12th c.

Unglazed wheel-thrown handled jug with carved horizontal lines and applied button-shaped elements on the neck; medium-fine, yellowish fabric.

TA17

AC2-SU16-2

9th-10th c.

Unglazed wheel-thrown carinated lid or pilgrim flask (?), with engraved and incised floral and geometric decoration; medium-fine, pale yellowish fabric.

TA18

AC2-SU15-3

11th-12th c.

Unglazed wheel-thrown conical basin with carved lines and carved notches on the rim; coarse, brownish fabric.

TA19

AC2-SU11-7

10th-12th c.

Unglazed hand-made(?) storage jar or cooking pot; finger impressions below the handle, black slip covering the outer surface; very coarse red fabric.

TA20

AC2-SU11-8

10th-12th c.

Unglazed hand-made(?) cooking pot, short cylindrical neck, everted rim, with soot traces on the outer surface; coarse light brown fabric.

TA21

AC2-SU14-1

10th-11th c.

Unglazed wheel-thrown cooking pot, with triangle-shape everted rim, twisted loop handle(s), and soot traces on the outer surface; coarse, light red fabric.

TA22

AC2-SU18-16

9th-11th c.

Unglazed hand-made(?) cooking pot, very short neck, simple rounded rim; small fragment; coarse fabric, with grey core and red surfaces. [no photo]

TS3

Shahristan

(11th-)12th c.

Wheel-thrown, green monochrome ware; carinated bowl; transparent green glaze; medium-coarse, pale-brown fabric.

TS5

Shahristan

12th-early 13th c.

Wheel-thrown, turquoise monochrome ware; small conical bowl; white slip and transparent turquoise glaze; medium-fine, pink-brownish fabric.

TS6

Shahristan

12th-early 13th c.

Wheel-thrown, turquoise monochrome ware; dish; white slip, transparent turquoise glaze, and underglaze carved polylobed decoration; medium-fine, yellowish fabric.

TS7

Shahristan

12th-early 13th c.

Wheel-thrown, turquoise monochrome sgraffiato ware; open form; white slip, transparent turquoise glaze, and underglaze sgraffiato decoration; medium-fine, pale brown fabric.

TS9

Shahristan

9th-10th c. (?)

Unglazed wheel-thrown biconical jar, with carved horizontal lines and red painted band on the neck; medium-coarse, pale-greyish fabric.

TS10

Shahristan

10th- 12th c.

Unglazed moulded flask with relief decoration (reversed S-shaped motifs); medium-coarse, pale brown-orangish fabric.

TS11

Shahristan

10th-12th c.

Unglazed moulded flask with relief decoration (rosette motifs); medium-coarse, pale brown-yellowish fabric.

TS12

Shahristan

10th-12th c.

Unglazed moulded flask with relief decoration (reversed S-shaped motifs); medium-coarse, beige fabric.

TS13

Shahristan

10th-12th c.

Unglazed wheel-thrown mould for flasks/jugs manufacture, decorated with roundels; medium-coarse, pale-greyish fabric.

TS14

Shahristan

10th-12th c.

Unglazed wheel-thrown mould for flasks/jugs manufacture, decorated with S-shaped motifs, roundels and square medallions with palmette motifs; medium-coarse, pale-greyish fabric.

TS15

Shahristan

10th-12th c.

Unglazed wheel-thrown jug (?), with incised and comb incised decoration; medium-fine, creamy fabric.

TS16

Shahristan

Unknown

Unglazed wheel-thrown jar or jug (unshaped sample); medium-fine, creamy fabric. [no photo]

TS17

Shahristan

11th-12th c.

Unglazed wheel-thrown handled jug, with biconical carinated body, decorated with incised vegetal motifs, comb impressed dots, and cut pierced grid band on the neck; medium-fine, beige-creamy fabric.

TS18

Shahristan

Unknown

Unglazed hand-made (or coil-made?) cooking pot or jar with two ledge handles on the neck, black slip partially covering the outer surface; medium-coarse red fabric.

TS19

Shahristan

Unknown

Unglazed wheel-thrown cooking pot; unshaped fragment; coarse light brown fabric. [no photo]

TS20

Shahristan

9th-14th c.

Unglazed wheel-thrown sphero-conical vessel with carved geometric-vegetal motifs on the shoulder; overfired grey fabric, greenish outer surface.

TS21

Shahristan

9th-14th c.

Unglazed wheel-thrown sphero-conical vessel, with elongated spherical body and pointed base; overfired grey fabric, greenish outer surface.

11The examination of fresh fractures under the stereomicroscope allowed to describe the macroscopic features and the surface treatment specific for each sherd, as well as to group them according to different macroscopic fabrics. It should be noted that all the vessels recovered are earthenware, while no stonepaste specimens have been found in these excavated areas.

12The glazed vessels analysed are 16 bowls and dishes (Figure 2), whose forms and decorations broadly conform to the Central Asian ceramic horizon for the period considered, having stronger similarities with the productions of the southern and eastern areas (e.g., Nishapur, Balkh, Hulbuk), and of the main centres of Mawarannahr, such as Bukhara and Samarqand (Martínez et al., 2019a). They exhibit fine to medium-fine calcareous fabrics, brown-reddish to pale brown (Figure 3).

Figure 2: The glazed and unglazed wares analysed / Figure 2 : Céramiques glaçurées et non glaçurées analysées

Figure 2: The glazed and unglazed wares           analysed / Figure 2 : Céramiques glaçurées et non glaçurées analysées

Figure 3: Microphotographs at 20X of fresh fractures of representative wares of all the macroscopic fabrics identified, through the micro-stereoscope. / Figure 3 : Microphotographies à 20X de fractures fraîches des productions représentatives de toutes les fabriques macroscopiques identifiés à travers le micro-stéréoscope

Figure 3: Microphotographs at 20X of fresh           fractures of representative wares of all the macroscopic fabrics           identified, through the micro-stereoscope. / Figure 3 : Microphotographies à 20X de fractures fraîches des           productions représentatives de toutes les fabriques macroscopiques           identifiés à travers le micro-stéréoscope

13Most of the slip-painted wares analysed, characterised by a dark brown/black slip-painting over white slip, were found in the lower layers (SU15, SU16, and SU18) of sector AC2, suggesting that their production and distribution were more widespread in the 9th-10th centuries. TA12, which is the only vessel presenting white slip-painting over a dark slip, seems to have been produced slightly later (10th-11th centuries) (Table I). The underglaze painted ware is represented by six bowls (TA2/3/5/9/10/13) recovered throughout the stratigraphy of AC2 (9th-11th/12th centuries). The splashed sgraffiato ware, herein exemplified by samples TA4 and TA7, is abundant in the whole AC2 stratigraphy, even if it seems more widespread in its upper layers. The last group identified is composed of four monochrome glazed specimens from the shahristan (TS3/5/6/7) attributed to the 12th-early 13th centuries; TS7 also bears sgraffiato decoration.

14The unglazed wares analysed comprise 22 items, including three moulded relief decorated pilgrim flasks (TS10, TS11 and TS12; in Figure 2, the flask to the left of these samples, found in shahristan, exemplifies their original form) and two pottery moulds used in their manufacture (TS13 and TS14), as well as jugs and jars, lids, a basin, two sphero-conical vessels, and cooking pots (Figure 2). The moulds, the pilgrim flasks with moulded relief decoration and the jar TS9, all from the shahristan, consist of medium-coarse fabrics, pale-brown to pale-greyish, with abundant inclusions (Figure 3). Fine tableware is represented by jugs and one lid or flask (TA15/16/15/16/17), some bearing high-quality incised, carved, cut pierced, and applied decoration; they consist of a medium-fine fabric with buff or creamy colour. The two sphero-conical vessels analysed (TS20/21) are made of the same highly vitrified, fine fabric. Among the less refined wares, the basin TA18 and the large flat lid TA14 from sector AC2 have coarse and medium-coarse fabrics respectively, and both show a light colour-whitish surface.

15The cooking pots display different shapes, which in turn correspond to different, coarse to very coarse macroscopic fabrics (Figures 2, 3). TA20 has a light brown matrix and predominance of rock fragments of ca. 1 mm grain size, and some dark grains. The paste of TA21 has a light red matrix, which contains similar inclusions, although dark grains are prevalent. TA21 macroscopically resembles the pot TS19, although the latter presents coarser inclusions and more abundant dark, angular grains. The pot TA22 is a coarse fabric with a heterogeneous matrix. The core of the body wall is greyish, while the surfaces are reddish, which indicates that it was fired in reducing conditions and cooled in an oxidising atmosphere. The handle TA19 consists of a very coarse red fabric tempered with large dark inclusions, and it probably belongs to a cooking pot or a large storage jar. The same applies for TS18, which consists of medium-coarse red fabric with similar inclusions to those found in TA19, though smaller.

Local raw materials

16The raw materials analysed include seven clayey sediments collected at different areas of the site: two at sector AC2 in the alluvial plain (G-1/2), two at the south-western slope of Tchingiz Tepe (G-3/4), and three at the area of Kara Tepe, located on the north-western part of the site (G-5/6/7) (Figure 1). The previous mineralogical investigation by X-rays of oriented aggregates pointed out some differences in the mineral fraction of these raw materials (Martínez et al., 2019a). Muscovite is prevalent in G-1/2/4/6/7, which also contain few kaolinite and chlorite fragments. In G-3, the predominant clay fraction is montmorillonite together with few muscovite and kaolinite. G-5 largely differs from the others, since the clay minerals are scarce and mainly represented by muscovite and kaolinite. Besides the clay fraction, other mineral phases identified by XRD analysis in all the raw materials are (in order of abundance) quartz, calcite, plagioclase, and K-feldspar, while dolomite was only recognised in G-1/5, and hematite in G-2/4.

17The petrographic examination also reveals differences in the grain size of the groundmass, being the coarsest that of G-3/5, and the finest that of G-4/7. The frequency and amount of non-plastic inclusions in the coarse fraction also differs among the samples. However, the main constituents identified in all of them are quartz, K-feldspar, plagioclase, micas (biotite and muscovite) and calcite, and are consistent with the principal lithological types already described for the alluvial plain and Tchingiz Tepe. The two samples collected at the southern slope of Tchingiz Tepe consist of silty-sandy sediment (G-3) with a brown-greenish groundmass and common to abundant inclusions up to 0.5 mm, and fine clayey sediment (G-4) with few inclusions including schist and quartzite. Regarding the two sediments from the alluvial plain (sector AC2), G-1 contains a brown-orange groundmass with abundant clay fraction and few to common non-plastic inclusions. Conversely, G-2 is silty sediment composed of a brown-greenish groundmass with abundant fine fraction and common coarse fraction (≤ 0.8 mm grain-sized). Among the raw materials collected in the area of Kara Tepe, G-5 is silty-sandy sediment with abundant fine and coarse inclusions (0.1 to 1.0 mm grain sized) including slate/phyllite and schist, and chlorite. G-6 is texturally similar to G-2, being Ca-rich silty sediment with a light-brown groundmass and a few to common inclusions (≤ 0.5 mm in size). G-7 resembles G-6, but it is finer, being the average of the non-plastic inclusions ca. 0.05 mm, with maximum sizes of 0.1 mm.

4. Methods

18Fresh fractures of all the specimens analysed were observed under an Olympus SZ61TR micro-stereoscope, while petrographic thin section analysis was carried out on most of the sherds using an Olympus BX43F polarising microscope. In both cases, photographs, measurements, and evaluations were performed with an Olympus DP73-WDR digital camera and the Stream Basic software.

19The chemical and mineralogical analysis by X-ray fluorescence (XRF-WD) and X-ray diffraction, respectively, was applied on all the sherds except the two moulds (TS13/14), the two sphero-conical vessels (TS20/21), and the cooking pot TA22. They were conducted at the CCiT-UB laboratory at the University of Barcelona on powdered samples following the procedures described elsewhere (Martínez et al., 2016). XRF-WD was carried out using a Philips PW 2400 spectrometer with a Rh excitation source. For the XRD analysis, two different diffractometers were used: a Siemens D-500 and a Panalytical X’Pert PRO alpha 1.

5. Results and discussion

Chemical analysis by XRF-WD

20The chemical subcomposition of the 32 vessels and the seven raw materials analysed by WD-XRF is displayed in Table II. According to the CaO values, all the glazed and unglazed vessels exhibit similar CaO values (between 8-14 wt% CaO). These values match with that found in the raw materials (8-16 wt% CaO). In contrast, the cooking pots were produced using low calcareous pastes (between 1.7-3.4 wt% CaO), and their chemical composition significantly differs from the rest of the vessels analysed.

21Some slip-painted wares, underglaze painted wares, splashed sgraffiato wares (TA2/4/8/10/11/12/13), and the green monochrome bowl (TS3) exhibit very high Pb values. Such values are probably due to the diffusion of the lead glaze into the ceramic matrix or the glaze was not completely removed during the preparation process of the samples. The same applies to the high Cu values observed in the green (TS3) and turquoise (TS6) monochrome glazed specimens, and in the splashed sgraffiato ware TA4. Very high P2O5 concentrations are also detected in two cooking pots (TS18/19), probably related to alterations produced during their use or occurred during their deposition (Maritan & Mazzoli, 2004). However, it should be noted that two other pots (TA20/21) exhibit the lowest P2O5 values.

Table II (a): XRF normalised data of the pottery and clayey sediments analysed by WD-XRF on the subcomposition Fe2O3, Al2O3, P2O5, TiO2, MgO, CaO, Na2O, K2O, SiO2 (in %), Ba, Rb, Th, Nb, Pb, Zr, Y, Sr, Ce, Ga, V, Zn, Cu, Ni, Cr (in ppm) and the loss on ignition (LOI) (in %), GW (glazed ware), UW (unglazed ware), CK (cooking pot), C (clayey sediment) / Tableau II (a) : Données chimiques normalisées des céramiques et des sédiments argileux analysés par FRX sur la sous-composition Fe2O3, Al2O3, P2O5, TiO2, MgO, CaO, Na2O, K2O, SiO2 (en%), Ba, Rb, Th, Nb, Pb, Zr, Y, Sr, Ce, Ga, V, Zn, Cu, Ni, Cr (en ppm) et la perte au feu (en %), GW (échantillons glaçurés), UW (échantillons non glaçurés), CK (pots), C (sédiment argileux)

Table II (a): XRF normalised data of the           pottery and clayey sediments analysed by WD-XRF on the           subcomposition Fe2O3, Al2O3, P2O5, TiO2, MgO, CaO, Na2O, K2O, SiO2           (in %), Ba, Rb, Th, Nb, Pb, Zr, Y, Sr, Ce, Ga, V, Zn, Cu, Ni,           Cr (in ppm) and the loss on ignition (LOI) (in %), GW (glazed ware),           UW (unglazed ware), CK (cooking pot), C (clayey sediment) / Tableau II (a) : Données           chimiques normalisées des céramiques et des sédiments argileux           analysés par FRX sur la sous-composition Fe2O3, Al2O3, P2O5, TiO2,           MgO, CaO, Na2O, K2O, SiO2 (en%), Ba, Rb, Th, Nb, Pb, Zr, Y, Sr, Ce,           Ga, V, Zn, Cu, Ni, Cr (en ppm) et la perte au feu (en %), GW           (échantillons glaçurés), UW (échantillons non glaçurés), CK (pots),           C (sédiment argileux)

Table II (b): Summary of the Compositional Variation Matrix of the vessels and the 7 clayey sediments analysed / Tableau II (b) : Résumé de la matrice de variation compositionnelle des céramiques et des sept sédiments argileux analysés

Table II (b): Summary of the Compositional           Variation Matrix of the vessels and the 7 clayey sediments analysed           / Tableau II (b) : Résumé           de la matrice de variation compositionnelle des céramiques et des           sept sédiments argileux analysés

22The Na2O concentrations also vary from 0.7 to 2.1% among the pottery sherds, and from 0.8 to 2.4% among the raw clayey samples. The highest Na2O values in specific wares and clays could be related to the occurrence of weathering processes (crystallisation of salts) linked to the presence of evaporites in this semi-arid/arid environment. This phenomenon was attested in previous studies concerning earlier ceramics from Termez and other sites in the Surkhan Darya valley (Martínez et al., 2016; Tsantini et al., 2016). Since they consist of soluble substances, they are dissolved and transferred to the pottery by meteoric water and groundwater and re-precipitated in the pores and over the surface (Amit & Yaalon, 1996). Therefore, Pb, Cu, P2O5, and Na2O were excluded from the statistical treatment to avoid distortions caused by contamination and weathering processes.

23Aiming to calculate the chemical variation in the dataset, the compositional variation matrix (CVM) was calculated over the rest of the subcomposition according to J. Buxeda (1999). The total variation provided (tv = 1.046) is high and characteristic of a heterogeneous assemblage (Buxeda & Kilikoglou, 2003). The sum of variances calculated for each element (τ.i values) indicates that the element most contributing to the total variation is CaO, followed by Ga and MgO.

24To visualise the distribution of the samples according to the (dis)similarity of the compositional data, we applied hierarchical agglomerative cluster analysis to the same subcomposition, using the centroid method on squared Euclidean distances. The data was previously transformed into additive log-ratios using the component with the lowest τ.i value (Fe2O3) as the divisor (Buxeda, 1999). The resulting dendrogram sharply separates the cooking pots from the rest of specimens analysed due to the lower CaO content of the former (Figure 4). Moreover, within the category of cooking pots, minor differences in other components determine two groups (TA20/21 and TS19, on the one hand, and TA19 and TS18, on the other).

Figure 4: Dendrogram resulting from the cluster analysis of the chemical composition of both ceramics and raw materials / Figure 4 : Dendrogramme résultant de l'analyse de grappes de la composition chimique des céramiques et des matières premières

Figure 4: Dendrogram resulting from the           cluster analysis of the chemical composition of both ceramics and           raw materials / Figure 4 : Dendrogramme résultant           de l'analyse de grappes de la composition chimique des céramiques et           des matières premières

25Most of the glazed and unglazed wares join the main group, to which are also linked five clayey sediments, especially G-1 from the alluvial plain. Several underglaze painted and slip-painted vessels (TA2/8/12/13), and the splashed sgraffiato bowl TA4 match in a second group. They differ from the rest of tableware and common wares because they present higher Ga content.

Thin section analysis

26The vessels were classified in different petrographic fabrics according to the characteristics of the matrix (groundmass), the microstructure (micromass), the frequency and shape of the voids, and the frequency, size, shape, distribution, and type of the aplastic inclusions in the fine (< 0.125 mm) and coarse (> 0.125 mm) fractions.

27The glazed and unglazed samples examined consist of different medium-coarse, medium-fine, fine and very fine fabrics (Figure 5). They all have a Ca-rich groundmass, although the colour and optical activity vary depending on the amount of carbonates and the firing temperature reached in each case. It is generally homogeneous, brown-orangish to pale brown-greenish, the latter being characteristic of the more calcareous and higher fired ceramics. Voids (usually micro- and meso- vughs and vesicles) are common to abundant. The frequency and size of the inclusions slightly differ among the sherds. The basin TA18 represents the coarsest fabric. The two moulds (TS13/14), the three pilgrim flasks (TS10/11/12), the jar (TS9), and the green monochrome glazed vessel TS3 consist of medium-coarse fabrics with abundant non-plastic materials (generally ≤ 0.5 mm grain-sized, rarely ≤ 0.7 mm). Inclusions are common in the two turquoise monochrome specimens (TS6/7) and some other glazed samples (TA3/4/5/7/8/10/11/12/13). The finest fabrics, with few inclusions, usually ≤ 0.5 mm grain-sized, include glazed (TS5 and TA2/9) and unglazed items (TA15 and TS15/16/17), as well as the two sphero-conical vessels (TS20/21). The fine fraction is mainly constituted by small crystals (quartz and probably feldspars) and phyllosilicates, together with carbonates totally or partially decomposed. The coarse fraction is moderately to well-sorted and oriented rather parallel to the vessel margins. The inclusions usually appear well distributed except in the flasks, in which they are more concentrated in the margins of the vessels, indicating that they were produced with moulds. The coarse fraction mainly comprises sub-angular to sub-rounded crystals of monocrystalline quartz, K-feldspar and plagioclase. The presence of mica flakes and metamorphic and igneous rock-fragments varies from frequent to common, depending on the sample. The amount of Ca-microfossils and nodules of Cal-micrite (usually partially or totally decomposed) also diverges from frequent to common; they are more abundant in the three monochrome specimens (TS5/6/7) and several unglazed vessels (TA14/15/16/17 and TS15/16/17), while they are scarcer in TA4/8/12/13. Opaque minerals and amphibole appear common to few, while crystals of pyroxene and epidote are few to rare. Most of the glazed wares from sector AC2 (TA2/3/5/7/9/10/11) also contain few fragments of chert and rare garnet; in contrast, TA4/8/12/13 have more opaque minerals, while metamorphic rock fragments are absent. Fragments of granitoids and sandstone are more abundant in the basin TA18. All the inclusions identified are analogous to those detected in earlier local pottery productions from Termez (Tsantini et al., 2016; Martínez et al., 2019b), and are consistent with the geological environment in and around Termez (Sánchez del Corral & Thum, 2012; Martínez et al., 2019b).

Figure 5: Thin-section microphotographs at 40X of representative wares of all the petrographic fabrics identified, by using crossed polarized light (XPL) / Figure 5 : Microphotographies de lames minces à 40X des productions représentatives de toutes les fabriques pétrographiques identifiées, en utilisant la lumière polarisée croisée (XPL)

Figure 5: Thin-section microphotographs at           40X of representative wares of all the petrographic fabrics           identified, by using crossed polarized light (XPL) / Figure 5 : Microphotographies de lames minces à 40X des productions représentatives de toutes les           fabriques pétrographiques identifiées, en utilisant la lumière           polarisée croisée (XPL)

28The cooking pots are represented by at least two main Fe-rich, very coarse fabrics, which match with the macroscopic fabrics previously defined for this category (Figure 5). Thus, TA21 and TS19 share the same very coarse fabric, characterised by ubiquitous rounded fragments of fine-grained reddish to dark siltstone, large fragments (≤ 2 mm) of igneous rocks and crystals derived from these rocks, together with common ferruginous nodules and few nodules of micritic calcite. The second petrographic group is represented by TA19/22 and TS18, made of a very coarse fabric with a brown-reddish matrix. Voids are abundant and mainly consist of meso- and macro-vughs. The inclusions are abundant, poorly-sorted and moderately-well distributed. The fine fraction is common in TS18 and TA19, and abundant in TA22. It mainly comprises small crystals, together with few carbonates and phyllosilicates. The coarse fraction is very abundant, and it is constituted by two types of inclusions. The largest ones (≤ 3 mm) are elongated and rounded fragments of fine-grained, Fe-rich sedimentary rocks (probably claystone and siltstone), although some of them resemble grog fragments. This fabric composition includes very abundant, sub-angular to sub-rounded inclusions (≤ 0.4 mm), and match the non-plastic grains found in the glazed and unglazed vessels.

Mineralogical analysis by XRD

29Since all the glazed and unglazed vessels consist of Ca-rich pastes, the mineralogical changes developed during firing are mostly due to the decomposition of calcium carbonates. Between 600ºC and 800°C, carbon dioxide gas (CO2) is released, and free-lime (CaO) is formed. At 800/850ºC, the CaO reacts with Si to produce new Ca-silicates such as gehlenite and diopside. The maximum stability of gehlenite is around 850-950ºC, and above 900-950ºC it reacts again, being completely decomposed around 1050-1100ºC (Cultrone et al., 2001; Trindade et al., 2009). Moreover, phyllosilicates decrease at high temperatures and normally disappear in the range between 1000-1100ºC. The iron oxides also react with both the primary and firing phases, as well as the decomposed organic material transformed in carbon (Nodari et al., 2007; Maggetti et al., 2011). In oxidising atmospheres, oxygen penetrates into the ceramic bodies, carbon oxidises to CO2 and the iron oxide developed is hematite. In reducing atmospheres carbon is rather stable, and the iron oxides that crystallise are Fe-rich spinels, such as magnetite or hercynite, which confer dark colours to the ceramic bodies. Spinel also appears to be the main firing phase developed in Fe-rich, low calcareous pastes. Based on the stability of such mineral phases, the equivalent firing temperature (EFT) was estimated for all the sherds analysed through the examination of the XRD spectra (Figure 6) (Maniatis et al., 1983).

Figure 6: Diffractograms of representative samples related to the different mineralogical categories identified among the glazed and unglazed wares. / Figure 6 : Diffractogrammes des échantillons représentatifs liés aux différentes catégories minéralogiques identifiées parmi les céramiques glaçurées et non glaçurées

Figure 6: Diffractograms of representative           samples related to the different mineralogical categories identified           among the glazed and unglazed wares. / Figure 6 :           Diffractogrammes des échantillons           représentatifs liés aux différentes catégories minéralogiques           identifiées parmi les céramiques glaçurées et non glaçurées

30The diffractograms of two flasks (TS11/12) and four underglaze painted vessels (TA2/5/9/10) present quartz, plagioclase, K-feldspar and muscovite as primary phases, while the firing phases (hematite, gehlenite and diopside) appear more or less developed. The coexistence of these primary and firing mineral phases suggests an EFT higher than 800ºC and lower than 900ºC. The same mineral phases are observed in two unglazed vessels (TS9, TA18) and five glazed specimens (TA3/7/8/11, TS5), although the firing phases are increased while calcite and phyllosilicates appear decreased. Therefore, the EFT has been estimated between 900-1000ºC

31The rest of the unglazed (TA14/1/16/17, TS10/15/16/TS17) and glazed (TA4/12/13/, TS3/6/7) wares are characterised by the absence of calcite and phyllosilicates, suggesting higher EFT (≥ 1000ºC). Moreover, gehlenite is decreased while diopside is much more developed. A still higher firing temperature has been estimated for the two sphero-conical vessels (TS20/21) since diopside appears as the main mineralogical phase together with plagioclase and K-feldspar. Also quartz is decreased, and calcite, phyllosilicates, and hematite are absent.

32Regarding the cooking pots, TA20 only presents primary phases (quartz, plagioclase, K-feldspar, muscovite and few hematite fragments) and the EFT has been estimated below 800ºC. TA21 and TS18 exhibit the same mineralogical phases but muscovite is decreased, and hematite appears increased as firing phase, suggesting an EFT around 800-900ºC. In samples TA19/22 and TS19, phyllosilicates are absent while hematite and spinel appear more developed, thus pointing to an EFT above 1000ºC. Even if the pot TA22 has a greyish core and reddish surfaces, indicative of firing in reducing atmosphere and a post-firing in oxidising conditions, no magnetite has been properly identified, but hematite. Nonetheless, it should be noted that magnetite is difficult to recognise in the diffractograms, due to its low intensity.

6. Discussion and conclusions

33The results of this study highly contribute to the better understanding of the pottery production at Termez from the Samanid period to the Mongol conquest. The chemical and petrographic analysis allowed ascribing the whole assemblage of unglazed wares, as well as the two sphero-conical vessels, to local manufacture at Termez. Most of the glazed vessels are also locally produced: three underglaze painted wares (TA5/9/10), two slip-painted wares (TA3/11), and a splashed sgraffiato ware (TA7) from sector AC2 (9th-11th centuries), as well as the four monochrome glazed wares (TS3/5/6/7) from shahristan (11th-early 13th centuries). Their attribution to Termez is supported by the compositional similarity between them and most of the clayey sediments analysed, especially the raw material G-1 from the alluvial plain, which consists of the finest sediments among the raw materials examined, containing muscovite as the main clay mineral. From a petrographic point of view, the local products have calcareous, fine-, medium-, to medium-coarse fabrics. The main non-plastic inclusions identified are consistent with the local geological environment (Cenozoic sediments covering the Hercynian basement). However, several fabrics corresponding to different pottery productions have been identified among these wares, thus suggesting that numerous pottery workshops were active during specific periods. Indeed, according to the archaeological data, the glazed wares were manufactured at least in one of the workshops located on the outskirts north of the rabad, together with other items such as the sphero-conical vessels. Large storage jars appear to have also been produced in this area, at least during the 11th-12th centuries, while unglazed vessels and moulded pilgrim flasks were manufactured since the 9th-10th centuries.

34Besides the local production, a small group of glazed vessels with slightly different chemical and petrographic composition was recognised. It includes two underglaze painted wares (TA2/13), a slip-painted bowl with epigraphic decoration (TA8), a slip-painted vessel with black slip (TA12), and a splashed sgraffiato specimen (TA4), all of them attributed to the 9th-11th centuries. These samples mainly differ because they present higher Ga values, although their petrographic composition notably resembles that of the local products and matches with the geological composition of the environment in and around Termez. In the current state of research, it is difficult to precise whether they correspond to a different pottery production within the Termez area, manufactured using different raw materials or, more plausible, they were produced in another nearby site in the region. An unequivocal regional attribution for this production is still not possible, given that most of the coeval glazed productions from other Central Asian centres have not yet been characterised.

35As for the cooking pots, they were manufactured with Fe-rich clays, although different tempers were used. At least two main coarse to very-coarse productions have been identified. TA20/21 and TS19 exhibit abundant fragments of igneous rocks as temper, and their provenance must be located outside the Surkhan Darya valley. In contrast, the petrographic composition of the pots TA19, TA22 and TS18 is consistent with the geological formations that define the Amu Darya-Surkhan Darya valleys and, therefore, a local/regional origin has been proposed.

36The study also demonstrates the high degree of specialisation that characterises the pottery manufacture in Termez and the advanced technological skills of the potters. They processed local clayey sediments in different ways and applied different technological processes to obtain vessels with specific morphological and decorative features, performance characteristics, and physical and mechanical properties. The firing process principally entailed oxidising conditions and reached temperatures from 800 to above 1000ºC.

37The archaeological and archaeometric research ultimately reveals that, besides functional wares such as jugs, large basins, and lids, potters from Termez also produced high-quality and finely decorated unglazed items at least during the 9th-12th centuries. In parallel, the potters working at the city developed an important production of glazed wares using a large diversity of materials and techniques. Apart from being a pottery production centre, the research carried out so far reveals that Termez also received traded ceramics produced in other nearby (regional products) and further areas (i.e., Iraqi products, Martínez et al., 2019a). That proves that the city was well integrated into the main Central Asian commercial networks at least since the Samanid period.

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Table des illustrations

Titre Figure 1: General map of ancient Termez (37°16’2” N, 67°11’24” E) (from Leriche & Pidaev, 2007: 183, Fig. 2; 203, Fig. 20), with the indication of the pottery workshops and the points of sampling of the clayey sediments / Figure 1 : Carte générale de l’ancienne Termez (37° 16’2” N, 67° 11’24” E) (d’après Leriche et Pidaev, 2007: 183, Fig. 2; 203, Fig. 20), avec l’indication des ateliers de poterie et des lieux d'échantillonnage des sédiments argileux
URL http://journals.openedition.org/archeosciences/docannexe/image/7077/img-1.jpg
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Titre Figure 2: The glazed and unglazed wares analysed / Figure 2 : Céramiques glaçurées et non glaçurées analysées
URL http://journals.openedition.org/archeosciences/docannexe/image/7077/img-2.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 813k
Titre Figure 3: Microphotographs at 20X of fresh fractures of representative wares of all the macroscopic fabrics identified, through the micro-stereoscope. / Figure 3 : Microphotographies à 20X de fractures fraîches des productions représentatives de toutes les fabriques macroscopiques identifiés à travers le micro-stéréoscope
URL http://journals.openedition.org/archeosciences/docannexe/image/7077/img-3.jpg
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Titre Table II (a): XRF normalised data of the pottery and clayey sediments analysed by WD-XRF on the subcomposition Fe2O3, Al2O3, P2O5, TiO2, MgO, CaO, Na2O, K2O, SiO2 (in %), Ba, Rb, Th, Nb, Pb, Zr, Y, Sr, Ce, Ga, V, Zn, Cu, Ni, Cr (in ppm) and the loss on ignition (LOI) (in %), GW (glazed ware), UW (unglazed ware), CK (cooking pot), C (clayey sediment) / Tableau II (a) : Données chimiques normalisées des céramiques et des sédiments argileux analysés par FRX sur la sous-composition Fe2O3, Al2O3, P2O5, TiO2, MgO, CaO, Na2O, K2O, SiO2 (en%), Ba, Rb, Th, Nb, Pb, Zr, Y, Sr, Ce, Ga, V, Zn, Cu, Ni, Cr (en ppm) et la perte au feu (en %), GW (échantillons glaçurés), UW (échantillons non glaçurés), CK (pots), C (sédiment argileux)
URL http://journals.openedition.org/archeosciences/docannexe/image/7077/img-4.png
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Titre Table II (b): Summary of the Compositional Variation Matrix of the vessels and the 7 clayey sediments analysed / Tableau II (b) : Résumé de la matrice de variation compositionnelle des céramiques et des sept sédiments argileux analysés
URL http://journals.openedition.org/archeosciences/docannexe/image/7077/img-5.png
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Titre Figure 4: Dendrogram resulting from the cluster analysis of the chemical composition of both ceramics and raw materials / Figure 4 : Dendrogramme résultant de l'analyse de grappes de la composition chimique des céramiques et des matières premières
URL http://journals.openedition.org/archeosciences/docannexe/image/7077/img-6.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 164k
Titre Figure 5: Thin-section microphotographs at 40X of representative wares of all the petrographic fabrics identified, by using crossed polarized light (XPL) / Figure 5 : Microphotographies de lames minces à 40X des productions représentatives de toutes les fabriques pétrographiques identifiées, en utilisant la lumière polarisée croisée (XPL)
URL http://journals.openedition.org/archeosciences/docannexe/image/7077/img-7.jpg
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Titre Figure 6: Diffractograms of representative samples related to the different mineralogical categories identified among the glazed and unglazed wares. / Figure 6 : Diffractogrammes des échantillons représentatifs liés aux différentes catégories minéralogiques identifiées parmi les céramiques glaçurées et non glaçurées
URL http://journals.openedition.org/archeosciences/docannexe/image/7077/img-8.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 1,1M
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Référence papier

Agnese Fusaro, Verónica Martínez Ferreras, Josep M. Gurt Esparraguera, Andreas Angourakis, Shakir R. Pidaev et Larisa Baratova, « Islamic Pottery from Ancient Termez (Uzbekistan): New Archaeological and Archaeometric Data »ArcheoSciences, 43-2 | 2019, 249-264.

Référence électronique

Agnese Fusaro, Verónica Martínez Ferreras, Josep M. Gurt Esparraguera, Andreas Angourakis, Shakir R. Pidaev et Larisa Baratova, « Islamic Pottery from Ancient Termez (Uzbekistan): New Archaeological and Archaeometric Data »ArcheoSciences [En ligne], 43-2 | 2019, mis en ligne le 01 janvier 2023, consulté le 28 mai 2023. URL : http://journals.openedition.org/archeosciences/7077 ; DOI : https://doi.org/10.4000/archeosciences.7077

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Auteurs

Agnese Fusaro

Equip de Recerca Arqueològica i Arqueomètrica de la Universitat de Barcelona (ERAAUB), Department of History and Archaeology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.

Verónica Martínez Ferreras

Equip de Recerca Arqueològica i Arqueomètrica de la Universitat de Barcelona (ERAAUB), Department of History and Archaeology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain

Articles du même auteur

Josep M. Gurt Esparraguera

Equip de Recerca Arqueològica i Arqueomètrica de la Universitat de Barcelona (ERAAUB), Department of History and Archaeology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain

Andreas Angourakis

Equip de Recerca Arqueològica i Arqueomètrica de la Universitat de Barcelona (ERAAUB), Department of History and Archaeology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.

Shakir R. Pidaev

Institute of Fine Arts, Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan, Tashkent, Uzbekistan

Larisa Baratova

Institute of Fine Arts, Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan, Tashkent, Uzbekistan.

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