1The provision of in-service training opportunities is critical to the professional growth of teachers of English for Specific Purposes (ESP). ESP teachers are not only required to master teaching techniques but also to do interdisciplinary work. To cater to the specific needs of their students, ESP teachers often conduct a needs analysis, design course materials, develop knowledge in the learners’ fields, cooperate with specialists of other disciplines, and imagine ways to create innovative and motivating courses. However, the provision of professional development (PD) opportunities for ESP teachers worldwide remains scarce, as noted decades ago by Kennedy (1983) who deplored those actors in the field focused more on learner needs and overlooked the teachers’ training needs. Research conducted in various contexts corroborated this view highlighting the pressing need for ESP teacher training (Master 1997; Iswati & Triastuti 2021).
2The teachers in this study taught a medical terminology (MT) course to learners of English in the Medical Track in the Preparatory Year, University of Hail, who would join the Medical School in the following academic year. MT is just one of four intensive courses of the English for Academic Medical Purposes (EAMP) program. The English program is divided into four levels of language proficiency and distributed over four eight-week quarters totalling 560 hours of instruction (20 hours a week, 140 hours a quarter). During the first two quarters, English for General Academic Purposes (EGAP) at elementary and pre-intermediate levels are covered. In quarters 3 and 4, EAMP is taught to ensure mastery of basic concepts and general language skills that should help students study their medical subjects in English. A placement test is used so that the students who pass are exempt from the EGAP course while the other students are placed in the corresponding level of their language proficiency. The EAMP course consists in a reading and a listening module where the two skills are taught separately using the elementary textbooks: English for Health Sciences Reading Skills (Mazyad 2008) and Academic Listening for Health Professions (Mazyad 2007). The course also includes a grammar module using a grammar course prepared by teachers in the medical track. At level 4, the course comprises three modules: writing, working on an individual small-scale research project, and medical terminology (MT), the latter being the focus of this study.
3Understanding and Using Medical Terms (Mazyad 2009) is the textbook used in the seven-week MT course amounting to 35 hours of instruction. The content is divided into 16 units; each includes a list of around 20 words related to anatomical names of the human body and their related diseases, medical procedures, and medical tools. These medical terms represent, as stated by the author, “the most commonly-used words in the medical [and] para-medical field” (Mazyad 2009: iii). The aim is to teach word meaning and morphology by focusing on understanding the various morphosyntactic aspects of the words (roots, prefixes, and suffixes). The textbook provides the target words and their definitions and allows for practice activities in the form of gap filling exercises which provide word definitions and information about word formation with some illustrations. At the end of each unit students may refer to a list of vocabulary and a monolingual glossary section. An English-Arabic dictionary as well as a CD, to practice pronunciation, are also made available for students and teachers to use during the MT course.
4While the role of structural analysis and decoding word morphology is well-acknowledged in vocabulary learning and in assisting the learner to infer the meaning of new words (Nation & Meara 2013; Wu 2014), developing knowledge of the different features associated with a word and proper learning require more than that (Schmitt & Schmitt 1995; Flowerdew 2013). Learning MT is challenging, particularly in the context of Saudi Arabia where the learners’ mother tongue is Arabic. For the preparatory year medical learners, memorizing hundreds of words in an intensive course is a heavy “burden” (Nation 2013: 44). Based on evidence from De Groot (2006), Nation argues that when the new word is somehow familiar to the learner because of the similarities with the learner’s mother tongue or other acquired languages, the learning burden will be reduced. Conversely, the burden will be increased, and learning the new word will be more difficult for learners whose first language or knowledge of other languages has no relation with the target language. Thus, teaching this type of specialized vocabulary in this context requires careful preparation and use of efficient teaching methods on the part of the teacher.
5As revealed in the diagnosis stage of this study (classroom observation), teachers focused on reading and drilling the terms and their definitions from the textbook and encouraging the students to memorize them. These findings corroborate Zarrouk’s (2016) results of a study in the same university which revealed that the audiolingual method and rote learning prevailed among teachers and learners. The trainers thought it was appropriate to train teachers in the cognitive constructivist approach (Derry 1996), the use of multimedia (Mayer 2005; Moreno 2006), contextualized vocabulary teaching (Hoey 2007; Nation 2013), memory techniques, and memory-enhancing techniques (O’Malley & Chamot 1990; Oxford 1990, 1994). This study is a report on the exploration of existing practice and possible impact of the ideas promoted in the training on the teachers’ beliefs and practices. We now turn to an elaboration of the theoretical framework used in this study, which mainly rests on mainstream literature on teaching specialized vocabulary, memory work in vocabulary learning, and the teacher education and development framework.
6Teaching specialized vocabulary has been investigated intensely since the rise of ESP with the register analysis approach in the 1960s (Hutchinson & Waters 1987). This view of language teaching in ESP heavily relied on identifying specialized vocabulary in the learners’ vocation or target situation to be taught in class. Although this approach was challenged by other views calling for focus on other aspects of the language such as discourse, genre, skills, and tasks, knowledge of specialized vocabulary remains a cornerstone in ESP learning. Thanks to developments in corpus linguistics in recent years, new practices emerged. It has become, for instance, easier for teachers and learners to access knowledge about the use of terms in authentic situations (Widdowson 2000; Flowerdew 2013). Corpus-based compilations have become readily available to learners and teachers such as the University Word Lists (Xue & Nation 1984), Academic Word List (Coxhead 2000) and Specialized Vocabulary List (Coxhead & Nation 2001). Nation (2013: 20) argues that “learning the Academic Word List and the technical vocabulary of the relevant field is an efficient way for a second language learner to cope with the vocabulary of an academic text.” He also recommended that teachers focus on more frequent words in the learner’s domain and consider teaching vocabulary according to its frequency level (i.e., high, medium, and low) for effective vocabulary learning. In addition to being informative and valuable, these lists triggered research in vocabulary learning in EAP and ESP, establishing the undeniable role of vocabulary knowledge in language learning. For instance, Nation (2013) associated the learner’s mastery of vast vocabulary knowledge with success in language learning. Similarly, Flowerdew (2013) explained that in the lexical approach to vocabulary learning, the syllabus is built around frequent words identified in the corpora and the different senses attributed to them when in use. Widdowson (2000: 7) argues that “[i]f the language is to be realized as use, it has to be recontextualized,” i.e., introduced in context and used by the learner to suit his or her communicative needs. Similarly, Nation (2013: 4) comments that varying the context of occurrence is important: “learning a word is a cumulative process involving a range of aspects of knowledge. Learners thus need many kinds of meetings with words in order to learn them fully.”
7As demonstrated above, the teachers of the MT course focus of this study relied on a textbook that followed a definition-based vocabulary learning approach. Considering that this approach has been criticized for not providing context clues for learners to transfer what they learn into different situations (Hoey 2007; Nation 2013), this methodology is believed to be insufficient to ensure effective word learning from a context-based vocabulary learning perspective. The designers of the training initiative wanted to promote a view of vocabulary learning as a cognitive constructivist activity (O’Malley & Chamot 1990; Derry 1996). Derry suggests following the cognitive constructivist principles according to which cognitive processes and representations constructed by the learner take place in a social context. Furthermore, Hoey (2007), argues that learners need to fully understand the new term, discover its use in different situations, and relate it with possible collocations. The learners’ linguistic experience with a given word prepares them to identify its features in comprehension or use. This process, which he calls lexical priming, allows the learner to associate a word with its context unintentionally. Thus, the learner continuously constructs a list of the word’s collocations and discovers a word’s different features, “its colligation; its semantic associations; its pragmatic associations; the genres, styles, domains and social situations it occurs in and/or is restricted to; its textual collocations; its textual colligations; [and] its textual semantic associations” (Hoey 2007: 8). It can be inferred then that when learners miss opportunities to encounter the term within variant semantic, pragmatic, or grammatical usages, this could impoverish their experience with the new term, reduce their chances to learn the word correctly and hinder the development of what Nation (2013) called productive knowledge. Indeed, Nation differentiated between receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge. Receptive knowledge involves meaning recognition and recall or recognizing a word when heard or encountered in reading. On the other hand, productive knowledge is associated with form recognition and form recall, the ability to pronounce the word, construct its various parts, and later use it accurately, in written or spoken form.
8Furthermore, MT has its specificities presenting challenges for ESP teachers and learners alike. MT generally originates from Greek or Latin and consists of roots with either suffixes or prefixes or both. As Duclos et al. (2014) show, medical terminology can be ambiguous because MT employs “polysemy” where several linguistic systems, including Greek, Latin, and Arabic, produce multiple synonyms. Therefore, one word can have several meanings in different contexts. They also explain that “vagueness”, another feature of medical vocabulary, could result in ambiguity. The term “myocardial infraction” is, for instance, used for more precision as opposed to just the word “infraction”. They added that medical terms could be eponymous (i.e., named after scientists’ names) such as Morbus Horton in German which is referred to as maladie de Horton in French instead of “giant cell arteritis”.
- 1 A method known as the Dean Vaughn Medical Terminology 350 Total Retention System in Brahler & Walke (...)
9Based on research in cognitive psychology and learning processes, O’Malley & Chamot (1990: 16) affirm that “language acquisition cannot be understood without addressing the interaction between language and cognition”. In cognitive psychology, the information processing framework for learning seeks to explain the process of information acquisition and storage in memory. The role of memory in learning vocabulary and its impact on learners’ academic success has been investigated in numerous studies (Thompson 1987; Roulin 2003; Brahler & Walker 2008; Tardieu 2008; Trocmé-Fabre 2012). Trocmé-Fabre, for instance, recommended that memory work be considered in pedagogy due to its presumed impact on learners’ success and interference with vocabulary teaching/learning. Brahler & Walker (2008) conducted a study on the role of mnemonics in medical vocabulary learning to determine its role in facilitating students’ retention of new technical vocabulary as in the Dean Vaughn System1. Mnemonics help learners memorize and retain vocabulary by associating new, unfamiliar terms with phonetically similar ones (audionyms) familiar to the learner. In their study, Brahler & Walker (2008) illustrated the use of audionyms with the following example: the root “gastr.” (stomach) can be associated phonetically with “gas truck” and an image of the audionym could help learners create an association for the word and retain its meaning. In this study, the authors included a three-tiered experimental study with three groups of learners: Group 1 (using rote learning), Group 2 (a combination of rote learning and mnemonics), and Group 3 (only mnemonics). Their results indicated that Group 3 exceeded by far the scores of the two other groups in terms of new word retention during the post-test. Although the research above investigated “traditional” methods such as rote learning with reference to the Dean Vaughn System, it is still helpful to consider imagery and sound association when it comes to word storage in the memory.
10From the perspective of cognitive constructivism, vocabulary learning is seen as constructed by the individual through definite steps, as stated by Cooper (1993). These steps are illustrated in Derry’s cognitive model of learning (1996). First, new input is processed through working memory and short-term memory (STM). Then, the input is integrated with prior knowledge in long-term memory (LTM). Finally, knowledge is constructed and restructured so that new knowledge becomes part of the learner’s permanent knowledge in LTM ready for retrieval. These steps are transformed into teaching strategies outlined by McLaughlin (1987) which include: (1) activating the learner’s schemata to establish a link with the new input, (2) in order for new vocabulary to be transferred to LTM, teachers need to make sure learners will negotiate the meaning and (3) use new input actively and engage in frequent practice to gain automaticity and avoid “forgetfulness”. Gaonac’h (2015) explained that the acquisition of new words requires the constitution of a permanent representation of a sequence of sounds and phonological representations stored in LTM and linked to other types of representations (semantic, syntactic, morphosyntactic, etc.) via working memory. Similarly, Tardieu (2008) explained that vocabulary learning occurs through word association with ideas, gestures, visuals, other words (e.g., collocation), and thinking processes about the form of the word, category, root, and construction as well as the link between form and meaning. Taylor (1990) and Tardieu (2008) contend that shallow processing of words does not ensure their storage in LTM and Schmitt & Schmitt (1995: 135) argue that “the deeper the mental processing used when learning a word, the more likely that a student will remember it.” This belief is held by Wolff (2003), who argues that only deeply processed words passing through STM can be transferred and eventually stored in LTM. Graik & Lockhart (1972, cited in Wolff 2003) contend that the depth of processing is not dependent upon frequent repetition of an item, but upon meaning extraction, resulting in more robust and permanent learning.
11Another theory encouraging the use of memory techniques in vocabulary learning is the Edgar Dale Cone of Experience (Lee & Reeves 2018), which highlights that students retain new words by doing tasks rather than merely hearing, reading, or observing. Following a similar logic, Tardieu (2008) recommends that students be actively engaged in learning and that memory work could be enhanced through breaks, discussion, differences in opinions, and a relaxing atmosphere in class. She also warns that insufficient perception, unanalysed information, or an incorrect address (when information cannot connect to the existing knowledge due to unrecognized information or emotional blockage) can result in forgetfulness. However, Tardieu (2008) claims that the latter situation can be avoided by facilitating learning, improving the quality of the audio or textual material used for teaching, contextualizing vocabulary, and promoting reflection (e.g., classifying vocabulary into lexical fields and creating an anxiety-free atmosphere).
12The integration of multimedia in vocabulary learning has been based on cognitive learning theories with multimedia. These theories emerged following research on memory which sought to design effective teaching aids for learners thanks to advances in technology. Multimedia learning has been defined by Mayer (2002: 86) as “building a mental representation from words and pictures.” Mayer’s (2005) Cognitive Learning Theory with Multimedia (CTLM) stipulated those words and pictures are first organized into two channels of working memory: the verbal mode and the pictorial mode, before these are ultimately combined. Once these auditory and visual cues are connected, they can be integrated with previous knowledge in LTM. He argued that multimedia use alleviates the learners’ cognitive load during the learning process since it assists the learner in forming a concurrent mental representation of the two forms. Moreno (2006), drawing on her Cognitive Affective Learning Theory with Multimedia (CATLM), suggested integrating motivation and affect with the intellect into video design to increase students’ motivation and maximize their learning. She explained that the affect (emotion) acts as a command switch to motivation which determines how learners will cognitively invest themselves in a learning task. Moreno (2006), in agreement with Camus (2003) and Schweppe & Rummer (2013), also included attention which plays the role of a monitor in selecting information that would further travel to LTM. In practical terms, Camus (2003) described attention as a cognitive activity that includes selecting information, information monitoring, and organization in the memory and Schweppe & Rummer (2013) suggested that the link between sensory processors and LTM are voluntary and involuntary attentional mechanisms, and criticized the previous models for compartmentalizing the memory. They also argued that these models leave several questions unanswered in relation, for instance, to how information transfer occurs from STM to LTM. Alternatively, they argued that according to Cowan’s (1999) embedded processing model, working memory could be referred to as a cognitive process rather than a temporary storage compartment and contended that the model proposed by Cowan (1999) backs up multimedia learning theories better.
13However, while the different cognitive learning models explain how learning occurs, teachers have no set procedure to follow when teaching vocabulary. Therefore, to design the training, we developed a four-step teaching model (see figure 1) to facilitate MT teaching drawing on Derry’s Cognitive Model (1996), Mayer’s (2005) CTLM, and Moreno’s (2006) CATLM.
Figure 1: The Four-Step-MT Teaching Model
14The four steps consist of (1) activating learners’ schemata through questions and/or videos (arousing learners’ attention and desire to know more), (2) extending prior knowledge by building new knowledge (presenting the new target vocabulary through videos or imagery techniques and allowing learners to discover the meaning of new MT by themselves), (3) allowing the learners to work with the new MT to build knowledge of the new concepts and establish a connection between the new terminology and prior knowledge, and (4) concept checking through the learners’ use of newly learned MT/evaluation and feedback for learners. Together with the teaching model represented in figure 1, the instructors involved in designing the module adopted a reflective model of teacher education we outline in the forthcoming section.
15The training initiative developed by the team at the University of Hail (UOH) was based on recognition of mainstream thinking in teacher education recommended by many scholars (Prabhu 1990; Wallace 1991; Freeman 1991; Freeman 1996; Borg 2011) who contested for years that to achieve the goals of any training course, it is essential to address the conceptual (or ideational) and the operational (procedural) levels of what constitutes teachers’ pedagogical knowledge. Wallace (1991) called on teacher educators to pay attention to the cognitive constructivist element in teacher development and proposed, through his reflective model, that received knowledge and experiential knowledge feed into practice and reflection for professional competence to develop. Freeman (1996) further argued that teachers are not blank slates. The knowledge received during training will engender transitional practices which evolve following teacher-specific professional learning curves, a fact to be considered when measuring outcomes of training interventions (Derbel 2017). In addition to the reflective practitioner mindset, the designers were cognisant of the model describing teacher knowledge domains proposed by Trocmé-Fabre (2012) and Kœhler & Mishra (2007). Trocmé-Fabre proposed three areas of language teacher knowledge: (1) teacher’s expertise in the domain (factual knowledge, basic rules, know-how), (2) specific reasoning, pedagogical expertise (didactic and engineering of learning), and (3) expertise in the learner model (learner’s mental operations in play and referential process). We also found inspiration in Kœhler & Mishra’s (2007) Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework to accommodate the idea of multimedia use in the initiative. Thus, the training course accounted for the teachers’ expertise in the domain, their didactic knowledge, knowledge of the learner cognitive model, and multimedia use to promote knowledge-based innovative teaching practices (see figure 2).
Figure 2: Model of Teacher Knowledge based on Hélène Trocmé-Fabre (2012: 11)
16Furthermore, the concept of teacher professional development (TPD) on which this initiative rests is concurrent with the views held by international organizations such as the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD 2009: 49), which defines TPD as “activities that develop an individual’s skills, knowledge, expertise, and other characteristics as a teacher”. The designers/trainers of the initiative therefore expected that such a well-thought-out training course would positively impact the teachers’ practice and improve the students’ learning experience.
17Consequently, this study attempts to explore whether training improved teachers’ practices and students’ learning experiences. Classroom observations and self-reporting conducted during the diagnostic phase helped the researchers to identify the prevailing methods teachers employed to teach the MT course before the training. The post-training data were then analysed, in contrast with the teachers’ practices observed before the training. Finally, the researchers used the four dimensions of the Learning and Training Evaluation Theory proposed by Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) to identify signs of success in implementing the proposed cognitive model and prospects of pedagogical change in the teachers’ practices.
18Teachers participating in the current initiative were introduced to more innovative and effective teaching strategies, incorporating multimedia resources. Research on the impact of multimedia on learners’ learning showed an increase in students’ focus/attention as they engage more deeply in learning (Mayer 2006) and in motivation to learn (Brett 2000; Mayer 2002; Moreno 2006). Brett (2000) found that the integration of multimedia into classroom language instruction has many benefits for learners as it encourages self-study and the creation of opportunities for learners to negotiate meaning. Videos, for instance, can be a source of input accompanied by meaning-focused tasks to be completed by learners while watching and therefore enhance understanding of the input. Moreno (2006) argued that the use of videos can also enhance memory work through the provision of a relaxing environment, an opportunity for learner interaction and meaning negotiation which in turn positively affects attention and motivation. Advances in cognitive psychology investigating brain anatomy and functions allowed scientists to further study this relationship. Tyng et al. (2017: 5), shows how in the human cortical region of the brain, “cognition is an extension of emotion” and “secondary processes of learning and memory scrutinize and regulate emotional feelings”. Eventually, the authors see no need for compartmentalization of learning strategies. In our work, we will use the label “memory techniques/strategies” and “memory-enhancing techniques” to refer to the cognitive, metacognitive, and socio-affective strategies (Chamot 1987) as these techniques can be combined (Rubin 1987; Oxford 1994) to maximize memory work effectiveness.
19In addition to tracing change in teachers’ practice, the researchers sought to determine whether the teacher trainees incorporated the memory and memory-enhancing techniques and multimedia resources in their day-to-day practice. The trainers/authors collected data about the training course to gauge teachers’ responses to it, and measure the acceptance and adoption of the ideas and practices in the classrooms in the eight weeks following the training.
20During the first session of the training, teachers were presented with the learning theories underlying memory-enhancing techniques and multimedia use in the classroom. The four-step model to teach medical terminology were introduced to the trainee teachers. Additionally, the trainers informed the teachers about the results of the diagnostic phase and asked them to reflect on the necessary changes. They also discussed the observation scheme embodying the proposed MT four-step teaching procedure to be used by the MT teachers to plan future MT lessons. The scheme was a checklist encompassing the proposed methods of presenting MT, highlighting the use of memory and memory-enhancing techniques and multimedia tools. In the second session, one of the trainers presented a model lesson incorporating the proposed methods of presenting MT and discussions with the trainees. During the third session, trainers asked the trainees to work in pairs on planning a teaching unit/lesson from the existing textbook and to apply the recommended procedures by enriching the materials with videos and by adding engaging activities. Towards the end of the session, they presented their lesson plans by sharing their ideas with their peers. An open discussion and trainer feedback followed the presentation of the lesson plans. Subsequently, the participants were allowed approximately eight weeks of independent implementation of the same teaching strategies in their classrooms. The trainers then scheduled classroom observation to determine whether and to what extent there were signs of adoption of the proposed teaching procedures and teaching strategies (see appendix 1, observation scheme). In weeks six and seven of the fourth quarter, a post-training online survey was sent to teachers to elicit their responses to the proposed change in pedagogy. After eight weeks of teaching, trainers also observed the teachers to determine whether they implemented the suggested techniques and procedures by contrasting techniques they used during the initial observation and the ones they used at the end of the training.
21As mentioned earlier, four research instruments of data collection were used: a pre-training survey, an observation scheme, field notes, and a post-training online survey (see appendices 2 and 3). The pre-training survey helped the researchers/trainers develop insights into the teaching/learning situation of MT in the institution and to particularly identify (1) MT teachers’ professional needs to help them make the course more effective, (2) the teaching procedures followed by teachers to teach MT, (3) the techniques teachers might be using to make their classes more effective, (4) the constraints which affect the teachers’ current choices of methods and techniques, and (5) the medical students’ attitudes towards the MT course as perceived by the teachers. In addition, the data collected prior to the training course allowed the researchers to edit the training materials and tailor them in as much as possible to the perceived needs of the participants.
22The post-training survey was designed to collect information related to (1) the teachers’ responses to the training they received, (2) evidence for teachers’ adoption of the recommended teaching strategies (memory techniques, memory-enhancing techniques, and multimedia use), and (3) the participants’ perception of the impact the training course had on their teaching practices, on the learners’ performance, their classroom participation, and the learning environment.
23The observation scheme (see appendix 1) was compiled after a thorough study of the literature identifying 41 memory techniques and memory-enhancing techniques that could be used to teach MT. The scheme had three sections: MT teaching procedures, techniques for facilitating MT learning, and use of multimedia. The techniques identified were grouped into six categories: practice techniques, mnemonics (linguistic and spatial), visual methods, verbal elaboration methods, and other memory-enhancing techniques. The third section sought to investigate the use of multimedia. The same scheme was used for classroom observations before and after the training. During class observations, field notes were also taken to record essential findings that the scheme could not collect.
24We used Google’s survey analysis to analyse the survey’s closed questions, and Atlas TI Software for qualitative data analysis for the open-ended questions. A paired sample T-Test on Excel was used to compare teachers’ MT teaching procedures, use of techniques, and multimedia use in the MT lecture before the training (BT) and after the training (AT). The results are reported in the following section.
25The observation scheme, field notes, and the online survey data were triangulated to increase the validity of the results. Kirkpatrick’s four levels of training evaluation model (2016), which encompasses reaction (degree of satisfaction of the training program), learning, behavioural change, and organizational performance, was followed to analyse the results.
26The post-training survey showed that teachers generally found the training course beneficial. Nine respondents confirmed they learned a lot from it. Responses included: “It was beneficial. I learned and implemented the methods and techniques”. While expressing appreciation for the quality of the information they received in training highlighting it should have been given before the semester started (T8 & T11). “I feel it was a benefit to the overall teaching and for students, too” (T1), and “I believe the medical terminology training helped me a lot personally. I wish we had this training beforehand” (T8), and “it was very useful. However, it should have been given at the beginning of the year before observations” (T11).
27To determine the impact of the training on the teachers’ practice the participants were asked to state the procedures they employed while teaching new MT to their students. Self-reporting data revealed that, prior to the training, they used a three-step teacher-led procedure but that after the training they employed a more learner-centred approach (see table 1).
Table 1: Trainee’s descriptions of their practice before and after the training
|
Before training
|
After training
|
Step 1: Introducing new MT
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Reading and drilling, focusing on the pronunciation of the new words
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Activating students’ schemata, checking old knowledge, and allowing students to discover the new terminology taught through videos.
|
Step 2: Explaining
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Reading the definitions, explaining the words, breaking down the words into their parts
|
Practice: activities in the textbook and supplementary materials with activities that require deep processing and active learning
|
Step 3: Reinforcing
|
Doing the exercises in the book
|
Wrap-up, evaluation, and feedback
|
28After the training, T10 reported that she now starts a new lesson or chapter by presenting an overview of the unit’s topic rather than directly targeting single words and their composition (what she did before the training). She explained: “I (now) use videos and pictures to facilitate learners’ understanding of the new words and resort to group work and games”. T4 described her newly adopted teaching procedure as follows: “I check the information the students have about the topic, build on that information by introducing new information, give exercises to check information gained, and then a wrap-up”. T8 mentioned: “showing videos to connect new terminology” and “incorporating different exercises to check understanding”. Teachers 2, 3, 7, and 9 followed a “Presentation, Practice and Production” lesson structure (described as “warm-up”, “while”, and “post” stages). Clearly, participants no longer start their classes by reading the list of words to be covered. T2 even mentioned: “apply[ing] evaluation and feedback at the end of the lesson”, which indicated a more personalized touch and a shift away from “doing the exercises in the book” found in the data collected before training.
29Trainees were also asked to report on their techniques to consolidate MT before and after the training. The responses before the training course revealed that teachers 1, 9, and 11 used flashcards and/ or visual aids, word associations, and breaking words into their constituent parts while emphasizing drilling and word repetition. Conversely, assessment, word association or review, and concept checking questions were reported to be less frequently used procedures. Instead, teachers described procedures such as “to do drills” (T1), “parroting” (T2), “repetition” (T8), “concentrate on pronunciation” (T9), and “constant repetition of medical terms” (T10). The class observations before the training corroborated these findings. It was clear that teaching pronunciation of medical vocabulary was conceived in behavioural terms, and, as such, new words were often practiced before the students were able to understand their meaning and/or construct a mental representation of the words and their sounds.
30Classroom observation data collected after the training, however, allowed the authors to note that this view of pronunciation changed. MT pronunciation was then taught using videos incorporating the practice of word use. The learners no longer had to start the lesson by reading words aloud, checking their meanings, and repeating the pronunciation after the teacher (see more details in section 5.3). Another indication of the change in teachers is the language they employed to describe their teaching. “Self-testing”, “peer-evaluation”, “multimedia”, “visualization”, “re-reading”, “grouping”, “games”, “guessing”, “peer-evaluation”, and “quizzes” occurred in their accounts of their own practice after the training.
31Therefore, after eight weeks of autonomous practice in the classroom, trainers noted that the teachers began to approach their work with a new mindset. The observation scheme data and the trainers’ field notes corroborated this. More details are presented in the upcoming sections.
32In this work, the researchers sought to trace signs of pedagogical change among teachers by observing them in action and gathering data utilizing a sample paired T-test where two samples for each of the same eleven participants were generated on two occasions through class observation before and after the training. Then the matched samples were meaningfully paired. Each section of the scheme was then analysed separately.
33Two hypotheses were formulated: (1) the null hypothesis: the difference was equal to zero, i.e., no change after the training took place/ the training was not effective, and (2) the alternative hypothesis: the difference was greater than zero with a level of significance equal to 0.05, i.e., changes took place/ the training was significantly effective.
34Except for T3 and T6, who scored minor changes in their teaching procedure of MT following the recommended steps in the training course, the other participants showed a significant difference (see figure 3).
Figure 3: Teachers’ adoption of the four-step-model in teaching MT
35The results obtained from the paired T-Test are statistically significant, indicating an improvement in teaching MT following the teachers’ training with the p-value P (T<=t) less than 0.05 (for more details, see appendix 2). These statistics confirm the findings based on the teachers’ survey indicating a reasonable level of adoption of the cognitive model techniques proposed in the training and a positive impact on the teachers’ practices. In addition, the p-value obtained provides evidence supporting the idea that the initiative helped transform teacher practice. After the training, teachers followed the recommended steps for teaching MT and applied the recommended techniques such as activating prior knowledge, consolidation, evaluation, and feedback.
36Moreover, the paired T-test results for the second section (see appendix 3 for more details) were also statistically significant, indicating a positive change with P < 0.05.
Figure 4: Using memory-enhancing techniques before and after the training
37It can be noted that the teachers who had already performed well before the training sessions did not show significant changes in terms of the number of techniques used, as revealed in the results. This insignificant change was the case for T3 and T6. However, if one looks at their observation schemes, one can see that although the frequency did not change, the techniques themselves were quite different. On the other hand, the results related to the other participants varied from relatively significant to highly significant. The change was notable for the teachers who had lower scores before training. It was further noted that teachers who scored low before training used different techniques in each observation, but their score was much higher in the second observation after the training.
38Furthermore, results showed that some techniques, such as mnemonics, whether linguistic or spatial, were not used before or after the training with one exception. After the training, T9 used the model method in mnemonics. While teachers continued to use techniques that fall under practice techniques, visual methods, and verbal elaboration methods, they used memory-enhancing techniques and multimedia-supported techniques more frequently (see scheme in appendix 1). Based on the evidence provided so far, the null hypothesis is rejected. The last section of the observation scheme focused on multimedia use, as shown in figure 5 below.
Figure 5: Multimedia use before and after training (BT- AT)
39Before the training, only one teacher (T6) used videos from YouTube and she continued to do so. However, after the training course, nearly all the teachers who did not use videos started to use them. The only exceptions were T1 and T3. The change that the training produced in the teachers was encouraging with signs that eight teachers started to integrate multimedia in their lectures such as YouTube videos and, in one case, a smartphone to play the online game Kahoot!.
40As stated above, “improvement and organizational performance” in Kirkpatrick’s theory is the fourth dimension used to analyse the impact of training. Thus, the research team sought to determine the possible impact of using multimedia, memory techniques and following the cognitive learning theories on teachers’ performance, MT teaching, students’ performance, and general classroom atmosphere.
41In the survey, teachers reported that their teaching was positively impacted when they implemented the new techniques and procedures and introduced multimedia. They reported improvements in organization, teacher-student interaction, student motivation, and engagement. Below are some of their responses:
42“Yes. It (multimedia use) has made teaching more innovative and interesting”. (T2)
43“Yes, the teaching was definitely more focused on active discovery”. (T7)
44“The incorporation of these techniques and methods allowed me to broaden my thoughts and ideas for teaching the book”. (T8)
45“I feel that the lessons have more structure. The recapping part of the lesson for the previous lesson is more organized”. (T9)
46More specifically, the research team sought to determine whether the impact of the training on teacher practice improved the learning experience for the students. The classroom techniques contributed to learner involvement: “when students were allowed to interact more, they were quiet, and they looked comfortable in class” (T10). The teachers generally noted that “students have become more motivated and involved” (T2) or that they became “more motivated and enthusiastic” (T8) and “more engaged” (T9).
47The teachers also attributed the change in learner behaviour and engagement to the introduction of multimedia tools which in their opinion, engendered better processing of the materials and more attention-focused patterns. T11 pointed out that the “videos, audio, games, and puzzles are perfect ice-breakers that help keep the students focused”. T8 said that “the audio-visual component helped students better connect prior and target[ed] knowledge”, and T4 noted that “they seem to learn better from images and videos”. These comments reflect changes in teacher practice which, in turn, impacted the students positively as reported by teachers.
48The aim of the final question in the survey was to find out whether the change in teaching impacted the classroom atmosphere. To this effect, nine participants (teachers 1, 2, 4, 5,7, 8, 9, 10 and 11) stated they sensed positive changes in their classroom atmosphere and described it as having become “more joyful” and “engaging”, “relaxing” and “learner-friendly” and “[where] both teachers and students feel relaxed”. Classroom observation field notes corroborate the statistical data obtained through the T-Test.
49The present study confirms that specifically tailored initiatives like the one reported in this paper are the way forward regarding enforcing and renewing individual teachers’ teaching competencies and building a capacity to meet the demands of the situation and overcome challenges. Though the researchers and trainers involved in the project anticipated that pedagogical changes would be observed in teacher practices following the training, the results were encouraging and, in some respects, exceeded their expectations. Through this work, it became clear that there is a synergy between the various facets of the professional setting of MT instruction: expertise in domain-specific knowledge, expertise in pedagogy, the cognitive learning model, and the use of multimedia in the MT classroom.
50The present study endorses the implementation of more innovative practices informed by cognitive theory and a multimedia-enriched pedagogy to introduce change in the context of Saudi Arabia but it can be relevant in other ESP contexts. The new practices described in the present study can alleviate the task of teaching MT and point to ways of making the MT course more accessible, efficacious, and more enjoyable for students.
51According to the results obtained in this study, the training course positively impacted teachers’ pedagogical practices. Training courses can pave the way for participants to autonomously devise extra activities allowing the learners to encounter the new terms in context and to implement more cognitively demanding tasks that promote self-discovery and deep processing. Having experienced first-hand how the use of multimedia resources enriched their teaching, enhanced their students’ motivation and engagement, and created the opportunity for learners to encounter words in authentic resources and real-life, domain-specific contexts, teachers who participated in the study will hopefully keep up with such “best practices” and motivate colleagues to follow suit.
52Finally, the training initiative described in this paper helped UOH transform the MT course. As a result, the teachers were able to acquire expertise that combined subject-matter knowledge, practical pedagogical knowledge, knowledge of the cognitive learning model, and knowledge of technology. Without such continuous professional development opportunities, it is difficult to expect the ESP teachers to keep up with the changing nature of these areas of teacher knowledge (Wallace 1991; Freeman 1996; Trocmé-Fabre 2012) as they are required to use new skills and draw on various areas of knowledge to serve the needs of the students in their trust.
53Similarly, the present study contributes to the literature on the pedagogy of technical vocabulary teaching by providing a four-step model, based on Derry’s (1990) cognitive model, to teach and consolidate vocabulary in a context-based approach. This teaching procedure, illustrated by this model, can be applied by ESP teachers in different domains. In addition, the memory techniques and memory-enhancing techniques identified and used in the observation scheme offer a handy selection of practical strategies that teachers can implement during the different phases of teaching specialized vocabulary.