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An Isotopic Exploration of Medieval Nun Diet at Saint-Pierre de l’Almanarre, Var, France: A Pilot Study

Reconstitution isotopique du régime alimentaire des religieuses à Saint-Pierre de l’Almanarre, Var : une étude pilote
Jane Holmstrom, Yann Ardagna, Tosha Dupras et David Ollivier

Résumés

L’abbaye cistercienne de Saint-Pierre de l’Almanarre (XIIIe-XIVe siècles apr. J.-C.) et le cimetière associé sont situés, près de Hyères dans le Var. Le cimetière, préexistant à la fondation de l’abbaye, a été occupé par les moniales mais également par la population de laïcs comprenant hommes, femmes et enfants. Des analyses d’isotopes stables du carbone et de l’azote ont été conduites sur un échantillon de sujets provenant du secteur dévolu aux moniales (n=9) afin de proposer une estimation de la conservation du collagène de l’échantillon et d’apporter des éléments originaux concernant le régime alimentaire des moniales de l’Abbaye. Les résultats indiquent que les valeurs de δ15N vont de 9,5‰ à 11,2‰ et de δ13C de -19,0‰ à -18,3‰. Les résultats indiquent une alimentation homogène à base de poissons d’eau douce et de produits d’animaux terrestres ; ce qui suggère qu’ils suivaient une stricte observance de la consommation alimentaire et du jeûne associés à la règle bénédictine.

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Notes de la rédaction

This note is based on a presentation given at the 1849th meeting of the Société d’Anthropologie de Paris, as part of the session "Mortuary Practices and Social Inferences"

Texte intégral

Background

1Monasteries served as vital spiritual and educational centers for women; however, despite the integral role women played in the conversion and spread of Christianity from its inception, little is known about the daily lives of nuns (Bennett and Bardsley, 2021). The sparse writings on religious women only deal with those of high status or those whose piety was seen as extraordinary (see Bynum, 1985; Effros, 1996; Jordan, 2012; 2018; Tilley, 2018; Sarkic et al., 2019).

2After 1000 AD, the medieval Christian church underwent a number of reforms to reestablish the rigor of the Rule of St. Benedict (Bennett and Bardsley, 2021). These changes affected men’s and women’s monastic communities differently, especially considering dietary restrictions and food abstinence. Medieval dietary practices have been discussed from both a historical standpoint (e.g., Bynum, 1987; Pearson, 1997; Adamson, 2004; Woolgar, 2010) and based on archaeological evidence (e.g., Ruas, 2005; Pluskowski, 2010; Hallavant and Ruas, 2014; Unsain et al., 2020). One way in which dietary practices can be interpreted from the archaeological record is through the use of stable isotope analyses. The use of stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes to investigate diet in the medieval period is well established (see Müldner, 2018).

3The interpretation of isotopic data from female monastic communities offer an advantage compared to the study of other groups as their diet is dictated by strict religious rules, rather than social status. To date, there are few paleodietary studies on Cistercian monks (e.g., Polet and Katzenberg, 2003; Yoder, 2012) and even fewer on Cistercian nuns (e.g., Hadjikoumis, 2023) from the same chronological period. This pilot study is the first to explore the diet of a medieval community of Cistercian women in southern France and was conducted to determine the level of preservation of the samples.

Site Information

4The monastic community of Saint-Pierre de l’Almanarre, located on the Mediterranean coast of France (department of Var), was founded in 1221 AD (figure 1). This Cistercian convent became the successor of Benedictine abbey, Saint-Gervais de Fos, which closed the year prior by ecclesiastical sanction (Ollivier et al., 2004). Attracted by the rigor and prestige of the Cistercian order, daughters of local wealthy families were recruited as nuns with an initial cohort of 11 nuns and one prioress. Within the next century, the number of nuns had increased to 32. The monastic property contained the church, a cemetery, living area, space for a possible garden, and other buildings. After a short tenure, the convent was ultimately abandoned at the end of the 14th century and the nuns were relocated to a new abbey that was built inside the walls of Hyères (Ollivier et al., 2004).

Figure 1

Figure 1

The location of Saint-Pierre de l’Almanarre within the Var department |
La localisation de Saint-Pierre de l’Almanarre dans le département du Var

5Excavation of the cemetery occurred over multiple years between 1947-2019, revealing over 500 burials in the late 1990’s (Ollivier et al., 2004). Those interred in the cemetery include the nuns from the convent, as well as males, females, and non-adults from the local lay community. The portion of the cemetery adjacent to the apse of the church had a high density of female burials, and has been interpreted as the area reserved specifically for the nuns (Ollivier et al., 2004). This section was separated from other parts of the cemetery by an artificial embankment. Further evidence in support of a separate burial area for the nuns is the discovery of five rings in five burials in this section. The rings, made from gold or copper with crystal or colored glass, possibly indicate burials of the abbesses (Ollivier et al., 2004). Radiocarbon dates indicate that the nun’s portion of the cemetery was used from the 13th to 14th centuries, which corresponds to both the founding and abandonment of the site. A total of nine samples (n=3, age 20-29; n=6, age 30+) were selected from the nun’s section of the cemetery for isotope analysis and to determine the level of preservation.

Materials and Methods

Stable Isotope Analysis

6Carbon isotope ratios differentiate between terrestrial and marine foods (Chisholm et al., 1982) as well as between C3 and C4 plants, which use different photosynthesis pathways (van der Merwe and Vogel, 1978). C3 plants are found in temperate regions such as Asia, Europe, and North America and carbon values typically range between -36‰ to -24‰ (Brown and Brown, 2011). In medieval south-west Europe, C3 plants include many of the shrubs and trees, as well as crops such as barley, oats, and wheat (Mundee, 2009). Carbon values for C4 plants can range between -14‰ to -9‰ (Katzenberg, 1992), and include tropical grasses that are adapted to drier and hotter environments (Katzenberg, 1992; Ambrose, 1993). In medieval south-west Europe, C4 plants included crops such as millet (Setaria italica and Panicum miliaceum) (Pyankov et al., 2010).

7The nitrogen ratio also varies based on location of the food source in the food chain, for example, a primary producer, primary consumer, secondary consumer, etc. (Schoeninger, 1985). Referred to as the trophic level effect, δ15N values reflect an increase of 3-5‰ change between the animal’s tissue and their diet (e.g., DeNiro and Epstein, 1981; Schoeninger et al., 1983; Schoeninger, 1985; Katzenberg, 1989; Bocherens and Drucker, 2003), making it possible to identify herbivores, omnivores, and carnivores in both marine and terrestrial ecosystems (Schoeninger and DeNiro, 1984; Bocherens and Drucker, 2003). Nitrogen isotope values are typically higher in a marine based diet due to the longer length of the aquatic food chain (Schoeninger and DeNiro, 1984). Nitrogen ratios can also be enriched or depleted due to cultural, metabolic, and physiological processes. Pregnancy can slightly decrease δ15N values (Fuller et al., 2005), as can cancers, infections, and major traumas (Yu et al., 1999; Tisdale, 2006; Olsen et al., 2014). δ15N values can become enriched through the practice of crop fertilization (Szpak 2014), periods of fasting or starvation (Hobson et al., 1993), breastfeeding (Fogel et al., 1997), and pathological processes such as osteoporosis (Katzenberg and Lovell, 1999).

8The interpretation of stable isotopes in reconstructing diet works best when multiple stable isotopes are used in conjunction. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes can be used together to create a food web, allowing for the interpretation of the average of bulk dietary protein in a past population.

Samples and Collagen Extraction

9The skeletal collection of Saint-Pierre de l’Almanarre is curated at Ostéothèque DRAC-PACA, Site of Marseille and still under study. A small sample of cortical bone (2-3 grams) was removed from the diaphysis of the femur (n=9), avoiding any visible pathological condition. Because there were no faunal bones associated with this site, we used previously published faunal isotope data to assist in the interpretation of the nun’s isotope values (see Mion et al., 2019; 2022; Holmstrom et al., 2024).

10Collagen was extracted using a modified Longin (1971) method. Each sample was cleaned in an ultrasonic bath using distilled water. The samples were then dried overnight in a 60°C oven. The cleaned samples were broken into fragments between 2-5mm and then subject to a 2:1 choloroform: methanol solution for 20 minutes at room temperature, rinsed, and dried in the fume hood overnight. The samples were then demineralized in an HCl solution (0.25M, room temperature) exchanging every 24 hours. Once demineralized, samples were washed and then soaked in a NaOH solution (0.1M, 20 minutes, room temperature). This process was repeated until the liquid became clear. Samples were washed and then subject to a weak acid solution (HCl, 0.25M), centrifuged, capped, and then placed in a 90°C oven for 16 hours. After centrifuging heated samples, the liquid was pipetted into uncapped glass vials and returned to the 90°C oven until fully dried. Collagen samples were sent for analysis at the Department of Geological Sciences at the University of Florida, Gainesville, where the stable isotope ratios (δ13C, δ15N) were determined with a Thermo Delta V Advantage isotope ratio mass spectrometer with a ConFlo II interface attached to a Carlo Erba elemental analyzer. Laboratory standard USGS40 was used with analytical precision of ±0.1‰ (1σ) for both δ13C and δ15N. The quality criteria used for determining collagen preservation were collagen yields (%collagen), percent weight carbon (%wt C), percent weight nitrogen (%wt N), and atomic C:N ratios. The accepted collagen percent yield for archaeological samples is at least 2% (DeNiro, 1985; Ambrose, 1990; van Klinken, 1999). Carbon and nitrogen concentrations for preserved collagen should be between 26-44% and 11-16% respectively (Ambrose, 1990; van Klinken, 1999). Archaeological bone C:N ratios should be within the modern range of 2.9-3.6 (DeNiro, 1985).

Results

11Individual isotope data is found in table 1 and plotted in figure 2. SP1090 US1090 was removed from further analysis as the %yield of 1.4, wt% C of 17.3, and wt% N of 6.1 all fall below the accepted ranges. Samples within the acceptable ranges for %yield and C:N, but outside acceptable ranges for %carbon and %nitrogen were included in the analyses but are interpreted with caution. Carbon and nitrogen isotopes from bone collagen (n=8) range from -19.0‰ to -18.3‰ for δ13C (x̄=-18.6±0.2‰) and 10.9‰ to 11.2‰ for δ15N (x̄=11.0±0.1‰). It is important to note that the small sample size may not accurately reflect the average diet of the overall monastic community.

Table 1

Table 1

Isotope data for the Saint-Pierre de l’Almanarre nuns |
Données isotopiques pour les religieuses de Saint-Pierre de l’Almanarre

Figure 2

Figure 2

Comparison of bone collagen δ13C and δ15N values for Saint-Pierre de l’Almanarre with ranges for freshwater fish (Mion et al., 2019), marine fish (Mion et al., 2022), and terrestrial animals (Holmstrom et al., 2024). Triangles represent freshwater fish, squares represent marine fish, and circles represent land animals |
Comparaison des valeurs de collagène osseux δ13C et δ15N pour Saint-Pierre de l’Almanarre avec des valeurs pour les poissons d’eau douce (Mion et al., 2019), les poissons marins (Mion et al., 2022), et les animaux terrestres (Holmstrom et al., 2024). Les triangles représentent les poisons d’eau douce, les carrés les poissons de mer, et les cercles les animaux terrestres

Discussion

12The isotope values for the Almanarre nun population (n=8) indicate a homogenous diet, possibly reflecting the dietary restrictions in place by the Church. Ranges of three different ecosystems from medieval France were used to further explore the diet: marine, 8th-10th (Mion et al., 2022); freshwater, 10th-12th (Mion et al., 2019); and terrestrial, 9th-13th (Holmstrom et al., 2024). Individuals consuming a strict vegetarian diet would be expected to have δ15N values around 7‰ (Fuller et al., 2005). The individuals from Saint-Pierre de l’Almanarre have δ15N values that indicate they consumed an omnivorous diet. While it is certainly possible that terrestrial animal products may have been consumed during periods of non-fast (e.g. meat, milk, butter, cheese, eggs, etc.), freshwater fish, most likely freshwater Anguilla anguilla (European eel) and/or Esox lucius (Northern pike), could have been eaten during fasting days. Other possible freshwater fish with similar isotopic values as eel and pike include Abramis brama (Bream) and Tinca tinca (Tench) (Grupe et al., 2009).

13Churches and monasteries in the medieval period received taxes from the local people in the form of goods such as textiles or food. Because the convent sits adjacent to the Mediterranean Sea, and the nuns came from families of high status (Ollivier et al., 2004), it is interesting to note that marine based foods do not appear to be components of the nuns’ diet. If the elite families in the surrounding area were sending food to the convent, marine products did not make up a substantial portion.

14Two nuns, SP1030 and SP1060-US1061, who were estimated to be between the ages of 20-29 at time of death had similar δ13C and δ15N values (δ13C=-19.0‰, δ15N= 10.9‰; δ13C=-18.5‰, δ15N=11.0‰) compared to their older counterparts. Bone collagen isotope values reflect the average dietary intake over approximately the last 10 years of life (Hedges et al., 2007). The Cistercian order did not admit anyone under 15 years of age (Bennett and Bardsley, 2021). This suggests that their childhood diet was isotopically similar as the monastic diet, or, that they had lived in the monastic community long enough for their isotope values to reflect the same diet as the older nuns.

15Unfortunately, there are no comparative samples in this coastal region of southern France; however, we chose five contemporaneous European monastic sites that were previously analyzed for dietary isotopes (figure 3). Two sites come from within France, the Dominican nuns of Rennes (13th-18th centuries AD) and the Cluniac affiliated cemetery of Saint-Jean de Todon (9th-13th centuries AD). Rennes (n=80) had a δ13C mean of -19.4±0.4‰ and a δ15N mean of 12.5±1.2‰ (Colleter et al., 2019). Due to burial location and burial style, females from the Saint-Jean de Todon cemetery likely represent the local elite rather than a group of cloistered nuns; however, these upper-class females (n=50) had a δ13C mean of -18.9±0.6‰ and a δ15N mean of 10.3±0.7‰ (Holmstrom et al., 2024). Sites outside of France include the Dominican nun’s convent of Santa Catalina de Siena (16th-17th centuries AD), the Cistercian monks of Koksijde (12th-15th centuries AD), and the San Victorián/Mercedarian/Cistercian monks of Valencia (14th-15th centuries AD). The nuns from Santa Catalina de Siena (n=80) had a δ13C mean of -18.1±0.3‰ and a δ15N mean of 11.4±0.7‰ (Sarkic et al., 2019). The Koksijde monks (n=19) had a δ13C mean of -19.1±0.5‰ and a δ15N mean of 11.1±0.9‰ (Polet and Katzenberg, 2003) and Valencia monks (n=19) had δ13C mean of -18.4±0.6‰ and a δ15N mean of 10.9±1.9‰ (Alexander et al., 2019).

Figure 3

Figure 3

Comparative plot of bone collagen data for European monastic sites. Error bars represent 1 standard deviation |
Graphique comparative des données sur le collagène osseux pour les sites monastiques européens. Les barres d’erreur représentent 1 écart-type

16The δ13C range of the Saint-Pierre de l’Almanarre nuns overlaps with each of the comparative sites except for the Rennes Dominican nuns and the Santa Catalina de Siena Dominican nuns. This could indicate a difference in dietary rules between the Cistercian nuns and Dominican nuns; however, the differences in diet between the two Dominican sites could reflect their respective geographies or the small sample size. The δ15N mean of Saint-Pierre de l’Almanarre Cistercian nuns is most similar to that of the Valencia Mercedarian/Cistercian monks and the Koksijde Cistercian monks. This is likely due to them being part of the same Christian order, although the monks’ isotope values indicate that they had access to a wider variety of food compared with the nuns. It is interesting that the elite females of Saint-Jean de Todon had the lowest average δ15N, which suggests that even with the means for accessing higher trophic level foods, they did not, or could not, consume aquatic resources as regularly as monastic groups.

Conclusions and Future Research

17Previous isotopic studies of nuns in the medieval period are scant, especially in the south of France. This research expands medieval dietary data and provides a glimpse into the lives of a convent abiding by austere orders. The nuns of Almanarre observed an isotopically homogenous diet, most likely consisting of animal proteins and freshwater fish. Consuming freshwater fish during periods of fast is an interesting observation due to the church’s proximity to the sea and marine resources. Future work includes additional isotope analyses for discriminate function analysis, mobility studies, and childhood diet; as well as expansion to the rest of the nuns and lay individuals of the cemetery. Faunal samples from a nearby contemporaneous site in Hyères would provide insightful data on diet in the coastal region, with potential to identify a more precise food web. Additional sites in Hyères from the medieval to modern period will also be examined to investigate dietary and migratory habits over time.

Acknowledgements: The authors sincerely thank La Ville d’Hyères and Direction régionale des affaires culturelles (DRAC) Provence-Alpes-Côte-d’Azur (PACA) Service régional de l’archéologie (SRA) Aix-en-Provence for without them the project would not have been possible. Research for this project was funded by the University of Central Florida College of Sciences. We are also grateful to the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments.

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Table des illustrations

Titre Figure 1
Légende The location of Saint-Pierre de l’Almanarre within the Var department | La localisation de Saint-Pierre de l’Almanarre dans le département du Var
URL http://journals.openedition.org/bmsap/docannexe/image/16117/img-1.png
Fichier image/png, 456k
Titre Table 1
Légende Isotope data for the Saint-Pierre de l’Almanarre nuns | Données isotopiques pour les religieuses de Saint-Pierre de l’Almanarre
URL http://journals.openedition.org/bmsap/docannexe/image/16117/img-2.png
Fichier image/png, 92k
Titre Figure 2
Légende Comparison of bone collagen δ13C and δ15N values for Saint-Pierre de l’Almanarre with ranges for freshwater fish (Mion et al., 2019), marine fish (Mion et al., 2022), and terrestrial animals (Holmstrom et al., 2024). Triangles represent freshwater fish, squares represent marine fish, and circles represent land animals | Comparaison des valeurs de collagène osseux δ13C et δ15N pour Saint-Pierre de l’Almanarre avec des valeurs pour les poissons d’eau douce (Mion et al., 2019), les poissons marins (Mion et al., 2022), et les animaux terrestres (Holmstrom et al., 2024). Les triangles représentent les poisons d’eau douce, les carrés les poissons de mer, et les cercles les animaux terrestres
URL http://journals.openedition.org/bmsap/docannexe/image/16117/img-3.png
Fichier image/png, 104k
Titre Figure 3
Légende Comparative plot of bone collagen data for European monastic sites. Error bars represent 1 standard deviation | Graphique comparative des données sur le collagène osseux pour les sites monastiques européens. Les barres d’erreur représentent 1 écart-type
URL http://journals.openedition.org/bmsap/docannexe/image/16117/img-4.png
Fichier image/png, 89k
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Jane Holmstrom, Yann Ardagna, Tosha Dupras et David Ollivier, « An Isotopic Exploration of Medieval Nun Diet at Saint-Pierre de l’Almanarre, Var, France: A Pilot Study »Bulletins et mémoires de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris [En ligne], 37 (2) | 2025, mis en ligne le 16 septembre 2025, consulté le 16 janvier 2026. URL : http://journals.openedition.org/bmsap/16117 ; DOI : https://doi.org/10.4000/14vnx

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Auteurs

Jane Holmstrom

Macalester College, Saint Paul, USA ; https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6307-9786 ; jholmstr[at]macalester.edu

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Yann Ardagna

UMR 7268 ADES (Anthropologie Bioculturelle Droit Ethique et Santé), AMU-CNRS-EFS, Faculté des Sciences Médicales et Paramédicales de Marseille, Marseille, France ; https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2844-0529

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Tosha Dupras

Department of Sociology, Anthropology and Social Work, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, USA ; https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8237-6850

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David Ollivier

UMR 7298 Laboratoire LA3M, AMU-CNRS, Aix-en-Provence, France ; https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3012-7478

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Le texte seul est utilisable sous licence CC BY-NC-ND 4.0. Les autres éléments (illustrations, fichiers annexes importés) sont susceptibles d’être soumis à des autorisations d’usage spécifiques.

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