- 1 A previous version of this paper was presented at the 6th ITRA’s (International Toy Reaseach Assoc (...)
1This paper1 focuses on a puppet theatre troupe which performed from September 1943 to the end of 1944 in “Free Greece” / Eleftheri Ellada, i.e. the part of central mountainous Greece which was under the control of the resistance groups fighting against Nazi occupation. The main protagonist of the performances was the puppeteer Nikos Akiloglou assisted by artists and educationalists.
- 2 N. Akiloglou’s interview to Maria Argyriadi (1994). The Benaki Museum Archive, Toys and Childhood (...)
- 3 N. Akiloglou’s interview to Maria Argyriadi (1994). The Benaki Museum Archive, Toys and Childhood (...)
2The starting point of the present paper is the close relationship between puppet theatre and play, since the spectacle of puppet theatre is based on puppets which can be seen as toys animated by the puppeteer. In that way he plays in both meanings of the term—both recreationally and theatrically. The spectacle itself is nothing but the output of such play. Nikos Akiloglou himself when referring to a puppet theatre performance called it “a very Greek game”, also noting that the performance “can stand… as a children’s game with puppets”2 [Akiloglou/Argyriadi, 2005]. Nikos Akiloglou (1914/1915-2005)3 was a professional puppeteer, who performed between 1935 and 1947 during a period when, in Greece, puppet theatre was gradually being transformed from an adult and family spectacle to a children’s show [Akiloglou/Argyriadi, 2005].
3This change is linked to the changing perception of childhood, which occurred in Greece as well as the rest of Europe. From the second half of the 19th century, childhood became conceptualized as a bounded social category with specific needs and rights. This changing conception of childhood, in turn, resulted in an intellectual movement towards the creation, in the early 1930s, of a previously non-existent children’s puppet theatre relating to the association of childhood with play. The artist Georgios Rotas is considered to be the initiator of the puppet theatre for children in Greece [Δαράκη, 1986: 42-45; Μαγουλιώτης 2012: 328‑332]. Other pioneers are the teacher Anna Giannopoulou and the playwright Vassilis Rotas, Georgios Rotas’ brother. In this new form of puppet theatre, the puppets were associated with toys and the theatrical play was understood in terms of a game played for and often by children. In conclusion, during the 1930s, puppet theatre addressing children had recreational and didactic purposes, thus also following recent, contemporary pedagogical principles.
4The new form is also marked by the appearance and establishment in Greek of a new term, kouklotheatro / puppet theatre compounding the notions of puppets and theatre. This term is compatible with childhood as in Greek the word koukla designates primarily the “toy doll” and secondly the “puppet”. The introduction of the term “puppet theatre” indicates a playful view of this theatrical genre. The playful dimension incorporated in the term “puppet theatre”, although existent, is not obvious in the terms previously used for popular puppet shows as adult spectacles, such as Fassoulis, after its eponymous protagonist, theatro andrikelon / mannequin theatre, and theatro neurospaston / marionette theatre.
5Between 1940 and 1944, the mission of puppet theatre in Greece changes within the context imposed by World War II. Although it continues to be an entertainment medium, necessary in the gloomy time of war and Nazi occupation, puppet theatre also grows into a rather singular educational mission.
6Τhis paper focuses on the most important puppet theatre troupe of that period, where the puppeteer Nikos Akiloglou performed. It studies, as already mentioned, his activity from August 1943 to the end of 1944 in “Free Greece” (also known as sto Vouno / the Mountain). After the end of 1944, Nikos Akiloglou following the liberation of Greece from the Nazis in October 1944 left “the Mountain” and returned to Athens in June 1945. In “Free Greece” his audience consisted of children of primary and nursery schools and their teachers, resistance groups and the students of the Educational Academy which had been established there. The paper aims to explore the educational aspects of these puppet performances both for children and the adults (resistance fighters and teachers) who assisted them. It relies on ongoing research based on oral interviews, archival and material sources. Nikos Akiloglou was a refugee from Sparta in West Turkey or Mikra Asia / Asia Minor among the Greeks who fled to Greece in 1922. He was educated vocationally acquiring technical knowledge; during the course of his education he gained a basic knowledge of art and theatre. He began performing as a puppeteer in 1935. His parallel work as an assistant set designer on many stages made him experienced in the theatre scene and brought him into contact with theatre people [Akiloglou/Argyriadi, 2005]. His performances were aimed at a juvenile audience, confirmed at least from 1940 onwards, [Akiloglou/Argyriadi, 2005; Βυζαντινός, 1940] but he also performed exclusively for adults, such as the ill and war-wounded being treated in hospitals [Akiloglou/Argyriadi, 2005].
- 4 “National Solidarity” was founded on 28 May 1941 in Athens, i.e. just one month after the occupati (...)
7Ν. Akiloglou began his resistance/educational activities from the early days of the occupation of Greece by Nazi German troops, in the winter of 1941-1942. During the Peina / Famine, when tens of thousands of victims died of hunger in Athens and Piraeus alone [Μπουρνόβα, 2005: 52-73; Λούκος, 2007: 219‑261], National Solidarity / Ethniki Alilegkii4, a populous resistance group whose primary purpose was to help people survive the famine, asked N. Akiloglou to perform his puppet theatre for children who ate in the soup kitchens organized by “National Solidarity” in Athens. The initiator of the project was the famous playwright, Vassilis Rotas. His work To Piano / The Piano [Ρώτας 1943], a popular farce which dramatized the suffering of the people of Athens (particularly their hunger), and satirized the parasites of that society (namely the black marketeers), was performed several times by Akiloglou’s troupe with great success. Apart from in children’s soup kitchens, The Piano was performed by puppets in hospitals for the war-wounded.
- 5 EPON was founded on February 23, 1943.
- 6 See also the handwritten note of N. Akiloglou exhibited among his puppets in the showcase of the T (...)
- 7 So far, we have only the first names of the teachers, Hercules and Lycurgus. They are obviously th (...)
8Stronger still and continuing was the educational effect of Akiloglou’s puppet troupe in “Free Greece”. Akiloglou was asked to perform there in early August 1943 by EPON5 (Eniaia Panelladiki Organossi Neon / United Panhellenic Organization of Young People)6 [Akiloglou/Argyriadi, 2005] the biggest youth resistance organization, which emphasised education and culture. Once again, the puppet theatre troupe’s expedition to “Free Greece” was initiated by Vassilis Rotas, who developed there a rich dramatic activity. A puppet theatre troupe was thus formed, composed of Akiloglou, the puppeteer, Alekos Myrialis, an exceptionally educated architect who led the troupe, his wife, Aleka Myriali, an educator with great experience in organizing nurseries (kindergartens), [Myriali/Dimitriou, 1985; Dimitriou, 2008]. Gerasimos Stavrou a writer and lyricist and two teachers. Later the composer Alekos Xenos and his wife Anna joined the puppet theatre troupe7 [Akiloglou/Argyriadi, 1994; Ξένου-Βενάρδου 2005].
- 8 See also N. Akiloglou’s handwritten note in the showcase of the Theatre Museum (Athens) where his (...)
9Akiloglou, known to the guerrillas as O synagonistis Kouklotheatros / Comrade Puppet Theatre [Dimitriou, 1985; Ξένου-Βενάρδου, 2005] performed a resistance-centred repertoire in “Free Greece” from August 1943 until the end of 1944. During this period, the troupe, based in the town of Karpenisi, toured Central Greece [Διαμαντή 2001; Akiloglou/Argyriadi, 2005]8 risking detection by the Germans [Ριζοσπάστης 14/8/1999], reaching even the most remote villages and covering long distances on foot varying between 580 km [Νέα Γενιά 15/6/1945] to 2,000 km [Μυριαλής, 1945] according to different sources.
10His audience consisted of adult resistance groups, youth resistance groups, children of nursery and primary schools and their teachers, and the students of the Educational Academy, as those in “Free Greece” sought to continue operating state institutions, such as education [Νέα Γενιά 15/6/1945; Σακελλαρίου 1984]. To this end:
– Many nurseries were established, primarily to save children from starvation. At the same time, these nurseries also performed an entertainment and cultural role;
– Primary Schools were founded and operated;
– Two Educational Academies / Pedagogika Frontistiria were founded to train future teachers.
- 9 Garidas, Hanos, and Barba-Giorgis were permanent heroes in the plays of N. Akiloglou before and af (...)
On “the Mountain”, Akiloglou’s basic troupe included five anthropomorphic puppets Garidas, Hanos, Barba-Giorgis, Misselinis, Hitlerinis as well as two donkeys.9 Two more female puppets are mentioned that performed in “Free Greece”: Assimina and Aunt Vavo [Ριζοσπάστης 14/8/1999; Ξένου-Βενάρδου 2005].
– Garidas / “Shrimp” is one of the two protagonists of the troupe. He is a clever boy whose name is derived from a popular saying in Greek, “shrimp-eyed”, meaning somebody clever, who is constantly alert.
– Hanos / “Comber” is Garidas’ faithful companion and exact polar opposite. He is a dumb boy with a vacant look, likened to a comber which is a small fish considered stupid, because it can be easily caught.
– Barba-Giorgis / “Uncle George” has much in common with the eponymous Greek Shadow Theatre figure. He is Garidas’ and Hanos’ old, peasant uncle.
– Misselinis whose name refers to Mussolini. In my opinion, the name is a double-entendre, playing on the Greek word for Greek-hater (misellin, antonym of philhellene), [Βελιώτη-Γεωργοπούλου, 2009: 355].
– Hitlerinis, a puppet referring to Hitler.
11On tour, the puppets of the “EPON puppet theatre”, as Akiloglou’s troupe was called, performed stories about the battles of ELAS (Ellinikos Laikos Apeleftherotikos Stratos / Greek People’s Liberation Army), i.e. the guerrilla army, and the Germans’ misfortunes, and sang resistance songs shared by adults and children alike [Διαμαντή, 2001]. Specifically, the troupe performed plays such as To Piano /The Piano by V. Rotas (as they had done in Athens during the Great Famine) and Tsarouhonafmahia by Gerasimos Stavrou -a naval battle where the Greek ship is replaced by a kind of shoe, named tsarouhi, that forms part of the Greek national dress for men and it has been transformed into the symbol of greekness. Other plays performed by the puppet theatre troupe were Captain Garidas, Hitler-Mussolini and O Iroas / The Hero, another Vassilis Rotas work, as well as other plays that have not been identified yet.
12The plays came from a resistance repertoire. The Piano [Ρώτας, 1943] as already cited dramatized the famine of the people of Athens, satirized the black marketeers and showed how the protagonists, two heroic children, managed to survive.
- 10 “Art during the Resistance”, 1985, 16th episode of the series The Chronicles of National Resistanc (...)
- 11 The story is similar to that of Sophia’s Mavroeidi-Papadaki novel “The Kolokotronis’ message” [Μαυ (...)
13Tsarouhonafmahia centred on the Germans’ withdrawal from Greece amid jocular and satirical situations and with active participation from the famous duo—Garidas and Hanos. Many years later N. Akiloglou painted a scene of this show [Βελιώτη-Γεωργοπούλου, 2009: 356-357]. He also presented it in a documentary on the theatre on “the Mountain” [Dimitriou, 1985]. Captain Garidas is still a well-known childhood hero, now turned guerrilla combatant and sporting the headgear and insignia of the guerrilla Army ELAS (cited by Διαμαντή 2001]. Many years later, in 1985, N. Akiloglou reperformed a scene that probably belongs to this play:10 Hanos is carrying a note for Captain Garidas inside his donkey's ear so as to conceal it from the Germans11 [Καραγιάννης 2007: 85-86].
14The play represents an activity of the children’s resistance organization, called Aetopoula / Eagle chicks, who formed, of course, a large part of the performances’ audience.
15Unfortunately we do not yet know the content of the Hitler-Mussolini play. However, on the back of Hitlerinis’ puppet, who most likely starred along with Miselinis in this play, we can find a mountza. This is an indecent gesture meaning “go to hell”. In this case the gesture is addressed to Hitler which points to the play being a satirical work. Indeed, in a documentary on the theatre on The Mountain [Dimitriou, 1985], Akiloglou performs a scene where Hitlerinis mimics Hitler eventually expelled by the children.
16In his work “The Hero”, Vassilis Rotas addresses the concept of the hero through the story of four children. He deplores those who unjustly call themselves heroes and highlights the virtues of the real hero [cited by Καραγιάννης 2007: 237-240].
17While entertainment and culture were of course an aim of these performances, the primary mission of “ΕPΟΝ puppet theatre” was to uplift national morale, to awaken the people of “Free Greece” as a whole, regardless of age, and to maintain the spirit of resistance against the occupation, working towards freedom. This mission was served by the themes of the performances, such as:
– Ridicule of the enemy and their associates through satirical discourse (To Piano, Tsarouhonafmahia and possibly Hitler-Mussolini) and through the appearance of puppets, see Miselinis and Hitlerinis
– Success of resistance movements (To Piano, Captain Garidas)
– The intellectual abilities and virtues of the Greek resistance (To Piano, Captain Garidas)
– Withdrawal of the occupiers and the liberation of the country through the struggle of the Resistance (Tsarouchonafmahia)
– Children’s participation in the resistance (in all cited plays).
- 12 See the handwritten note of N. Akiloglou exhibited among his puppets in the showcase of the Theatr (...)
18Finally, the two main aims of puppet theatre performances—entertainment and the proliferation of the resistance spirit—were achieved through a variety of educational activities:
– Puppet theatre was being taught at the “Educational Academy” in the town of Karpenisi, which trained future teachers [Akiloglou/ Argyriadi, 2005], who learned to make puppets, to perform, to decorate the stage and to write plays [Ξένου-Βενάρδου, 2005];
– It was also taught in the school of nursery administration [cited by Ξένου-Βενάρδου 2005];
– Puppet theatre schools were founded while on tour [Νέα Γενιά 15/6/1945];
– According to Akiloglou’s testimony, troupes of children and youths were also created,12 as shown in a painting made by himself many years later following his favorite habit. While on tour, the puppet theatre troupe “taught children to make puppets, to paint them and perform with them, building plots from their homes or daily lives” [cited by Διαμαντή, 2001].
19In conclusion, in the year and a half when Akiloglou’s troupe was active, it accomplished a singular work of resistance-centred entertainment and education, within a remarkable historical context, presenting, as has been aptly stated, “an art form, and together play, to children and guerrillas” [Διαμαντή, 2001].