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Some notes towards a theory of comics translation

Isabelle Licari-Guillaume et Timothy Sirjacobs
Cet article est une traduction de :
Quelques notes pour une théorie de la traduction de la bande dessinée [fr]

Notes de la rédaction

The editors wish to thank Romain Becker for his contribution to an earlier version of this text.

Texte intégral

The emergence of comics translation studies

1In a 1999 article published in Target, Klaus Kaindl linked comics and the sociology of translation, marking a radical turn in the study of translated comics. For the first time, various aspects of comics translation were examined from a sociological perspective. This initial research was followed in 2008 by the monograph Comics in Translation, edited by Frederico Zanettin. In his introduction, Zanettin (2008, 19-20) points to the late inclusion of comics in the sociology of translation, noting the limited number of articles dealing with the subject and the certainly interesting, yet often reductive perspectives through which it had traditionally been approached. Although comics by then had arguably been “fully reclaimed by intellectual circles” (D’oria and Conenna 1979, 19, our translation), and despite Reiss’ (1982) promising article approaching comics translation from a multimodal point of view, in most cases the emphasis remained on the oral nature of the medium (see for example Fresnault-Deruelle 1970; 1975; Caceres Würsig 1995, 527-528). This perspective was also reflected in the few articles devoted to comics in translation (D’oria and Conenna 1979; Sierra Soriano 1999). Overall, translation within this medium was seen as “constrained”, focused on “comical effect” (Santi 1983, our translation) in a space graphically delimited by caption boxes and speech bubbles (Mayoral, Kelly and Gallardo 1988).

2Since Kaindl’s article and the collection edited by Zanettin, comics translation seems to have garnered more interest in academia. Comics have been included in translation studies (Kaindl 2010; Mälzer 2015), while comic scholars have paid more sustained interest to translation within their field (Berthou 2016, 45; Altenberg and Owen 2015, i; Evans 2017; Béghain and Licari-Guillaume 2019). In addition, a good number of articles, symposia and monographs have been dedicated to the place reserved for translated comics in a variety of contexts (see, among others, Kaindl 2010; Brienza 2016; Berthou 2019; Giaufret 2020; Öztürk and Tarakçıoğlu 2020; Rodríguez Rodríguez 2021). More recently, a special issue of the journal inTRAlinea (2023) edited by Michał Borodo looked at the ways in which translations reimagine comics, while a special issue of the journal Mémoires du livre/Studies in Book Culture (2023) hosted by Maël Rannou and Philippe Rioux tackled transfers and circulations of the medium.

3Yet, while the relationship between comics and the sociology of translation evolved, the latter also underwent profound changes. This thematic issue therefore examines new sociological approaches applied to comics in translation, favoring a more theoretical framework that does not restrict contributions to geographical, cultural or linguistic areas, as has often been the case for comics (Rannou and Ya-Chee-Chan 2018). It instead seeks to highlight exchanges across time and space, focusing on two dimensions: first, by claiming that the (in)visibility of the actors involved in comics translation is conditioned by a complex network of power relations, and secondly, by examining translations beyond the text.

Current areas of inquiry

4Despite recent attention paid to literary translators (Kaindl, Schlager and Waltraud 2021), the actors involved in comics translation still remain largely unknown. As a result, the professional practices of these “often neglected […] cultural transmitters” (De Dobbeleer 2020) also remain underexplored. Sanz-Moreno and Ferrer Simó (2021) offer one of the few analyses of professional comics translators, while Lee (2009), Baudry (2019), Cassany and Valero-Porras (2015; 2016) focus on the practices and postures of non-professional translators of the medium. These studies show that translation choices—both the texts one chooses to translate and the way in which one does so—depend to a large extent on the translator’s profile. Gender identity may play a role in the way that translators overlook certain interpretations and evaluate translation strategies (Henitiuk 1999). Similar remarks can be made for translators who have family ties to the author, as is the case for Sophie Crumb who translated her parents’ work into French. Translators who are also writers may be tempted to translate in their own style. Despite interest in self-translation (Ost 2011; Ferraro and Grutman 2016; Stavans and Kleiman-Lafon 2022), multilingual publications (Lee 2010) and heterolingualism (Grutman 2006; Meylaerts 2008; Denti 2018) in the analysis of literary translations, these avenues remain largely absent in the analysis of comics translations. That, in spite of authors such as Julie Doucet, Brecht Evens, Sophie Labelle or Olivier Schrauwen who all self-translate their work; of the multilingual publications of Orang Magazine and the Samandal collective (Kelp-Stebbins 2022); and of the heterolingualism of authors such as Riad Sattouf, recently analyzed by Woerly (2023).

5However, shedding light on the position of those who translate comics, as well as those who help and/or hinder them in their work, often involves getting to know the translator and their professional context. In a medium where anonymity was once the norm, not just for translators but for authors as well, whose archives are often absent or not yet fully inventoried, and whose contracts are often undisclosed or protected by NDA agreements, an analysis that takes into account aspects relating to identity is far from easy.

6The relationship between translators and other actors (publishers, authors, etc.) must be read against the background of transnational power relations between several languages (Casanova 2008; Heilbron 2020; Sapiro 2020), divided (and distinguished) by national (Leperlier 2021) and intra-national borders (Paquette 2019, 9). These power relations impact the ease with which a work travels from one language to another, as well as the frequency of cultural transfers between different geographical and linguistic areas (Kelp-Stebbins 2022). Recently, public subsidies seeking to intervene in this literary imbalance in the form of cultural policy (von Flowtow 2018; Paquette 2019; Hedberg and Vimr 2022) have also been allocated to comic book translations (Becker 2022a, 96).

7Understanding power relations in comics translations requires that we pay attention not only to stylistic choices in relation to the text, but also to the typically editorial choice of (not) translating a certain piece or specific aspects of it. Given that comics is made up of a “coordinated set of mechanisms of representation and language” (Groensteen 2014, 15, our translation), which are never completely separate or separable, we might well ask what role the visual and material aspects play in the analysis of translated comics. While the textual dimension has been explored for the novel in translation by Boase-Beier (2006; 2020; 2023), in the context of comics, it would also be a matter of studying the visual appearance of this same text. Apart from redesigned panels (Lesage 2011) or reinvented typography (Becker 2022b), for example due to formal constraints or a given political context, we are also thinking of the material and haptic dimensions of the translated work, as recently analyzed by Sørensen (2022) for photo-novels in translation. Depending on cultural constraints, but also on sociological data (regarding both the audience and actors of publishing), these non-textual aspects of comics acquire real weight in the adaptation process (see, for example, Baetens 2007, for the implications of visual and haptic differences between Dutch- and French-language comics in Belgium).

8For those aspects of translation that go beyond the textual, actors other than the translators can—or even must—also be involved, evidencing what Jansen and Wegener (2013) have termed Multiple translatorship. Given the importance of graphic design for comics, this includes not only editors, but also letterers, book designers, printers and even other artists. These different actors have their own opinions and challenges concerning the adaptation of a work for its new audience and must therefore be taken into account to establish a comprehensive sociology of comics translation. What is more, the constraints (financial, material, artistic, etc.) of some may influence the practices of others; here too, the question of power relations arises.

Contents of the thematic issue

9Three of the articles published in this special issue examine the translator’s (in)visibility, demonstrating that visibility is a function of the various power structures within which translators are embedded. This visibility, or lack thereof, may be part of a commercial strategy; it may be conditioned by established practices within the industry, and may reflect broader changes in the cultural position of comics in a given linguistic area.

10The next three articles focus more specifically on inter- and intra-linguistic negotiations. They examine phenomena that have not yet received sufficient critical attention, such as retranslation of a given comic book, intralingual translation and comics as a “born translated” medium (Walkowitz 2015).

11In the opening contribution, Diego Labra analyses adaptation strategies in Argentina, an area that is peripheral to the three historic world centers of comics (North America, Japan and the Franco-Belgian area, cf. Beaty 2007, 111). Argentine publishers had to carve a place for themselves in a competitive environment dominated by books in so-called “neutral Spanish”, as opposed to the specifically Argentine variant. Labra provides a case study of the Argentine manga publisher Ivrea (1999), delving into its use of paratexts as a strategic bid to distinguish Ivrea’s books from their competition. He unpacks the role of two paratextual sections, the translator’s clarifications and the letter column, showing how they contribute to a sense of authenticity and community-building and suggesting that their disappearance from more recent Ivrea publications are the result of a larger industrial shift towards books as collectibles.

12In the second article Timothy Sirjacobs notes that the broader notion of visibility has yet to be explored within sociological research on comic translations. Drawing on earlier research on (para)textual translator visibilities, he broadens the concept of invisibility coined by Venuti, and nuances it by considering (historic) comic book translation practises in Dutch translations of Francophone-Belgian comics, as well the evolving status of comics as cultural artefacts. Sirjacobs goes on to examine the (para)textual translator visibilities of René van de Weijer, the first Dutch translator of Francophone Belgian comics to be systematically mentioned in his translations. In doing so he highlights the interplay between multiple, sometimes diverging translator visibilities within often unequal transnational processes of comic translation, and how these visibilities simultaneously redefine these works and their targeted readerships.

13Thirdly, looking at Zerocalcare’s work in both comics and animation (with a specific focus on his recent Netflix series), Inge Lanslots invites us to expand our understanding of translation in at least two different ways. First, she reminds us that adaptation is, in and of itself, a form of intersemiotic translation; secondly, drawing from Maheen Ahmed, she insists on the multiplicity of actors involved in any translation process. In so doing, she deconstructs the accepted idea that the translator (and by extension, any kind of author) can be a single person and argues that we should broaden our understanding of what translatorship entails.

14Opening the second half of the issue, Michèle Debrenne begins with an example of comics retranslation, as she explores three successive translations of Hergé’s Tintin books into Russian. One is contemporary; the second dates from the 1990s, while the third was published as early as the 1950. Navigating the inherent difficulties of dealing with missing or fragmentary information about those early translations, Debrenne provides a close reading of the Russian texts, demonstrating how they were published not just at different times and in a different media environment, but also for different audiences and by different actors; depending on the era, translators exhibit various levels of familiarity with the comics medium and different underlying beliefs as to what constitutes a “good” translation.

15Next, Elke Brems goes on to explore the role of intralingual translation between Netherlandic Dutch and (the then not yet sufficiently standardized) Belgian Dutch or Flemish in the early history of Dutch-language newspaper comic strips. She does so by analyzing De wereldreis van Bulletje en Boonestaak (Fatso and Beanstalk’s World Travels) by A.M. de Jong and George van Raemdonck. Her study reflects on the linguistic and cultural divergence between both variants of Dutch in the interwar period and the importance of tailoring cultural products to specific audiences, even within shared language communities, underscoring the comics’ enduring influence on cultural memory.

16Finally, Timothy Sirjacobs, Stéphanie Vanasten and Juliette Biard highlight the “born translated” aspect (Walkowitz 2015) of the publications by Flemish cartoonist Willy Vandersteen for the French-language weekly comic magazine Tintin and its Dutch-language edition Kuifje. Through an analysis of cultural realia and localisation processes in Het Spaanse spook/Le Fantôme espagnol, the first story the cartoonist produced for the aforementioned magazines, they demonstrate how Vandersteen developed his oeuvre in response to the French-speaking audience, which represented a crucial step in its internationalisation. In doing so, Sirjacobs, Vanasten and Biard highlight that this comic, through its graphic, narrative, material and linguistic dimensions, can be considered a work that was “born translated” in which translation plays a central role, not as a simple instrument of transposition, but as a driving force in its creation and dissemination.

Further questions

17These six contributions pave the way for numerous questions deserving of future inquiry. What role do identity, gender, biography and training play in the analysis of a translator’s works? What archival resources are available for analyzing comics translations, and how can they be integrated into one’s research? How can we make translated comics and their source languages more visible, both quantitatively and qualitatively? What is the weight of national and linguistic borders for the publication of comic book translations in a medium often defined by its (pseudo-)national aspect (Rannou and Ya-Chee-Chan 2018)? As these boundaries evolve over time, a translation can also take on (or lose) a political dimension, reflecting the balance of power between different cultural and linguistic areas (Brems 2013).

18Finally, what role do materiality and physical appearance play in the translation of comics, and what role do they continue to play for translation in increasingly digitized publication and reception contexts? How are the materiality and graphic dimension (drawing, lettering, etc.) of comics “translated”, and by whom? What is the relationship between translation choices and the power relations mentioned above? Finally, can a translated comic constitute a separate work, quite distinct from its source? If so, should translators and other actors involved in the translation process be considered authors in their own right? And do they consider themselves as such?

19We hope that future research will tackle these questions and, perhaps more importantly, lead to the emergence of yet untheorized ways of seeing comics translation.

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Isabelle Licari-Guillaume et Timothy Sirjacobs, « Some notes towards a theory of comics translation »Comicalités [En ligne], La bande dessinée en traductologie : approches sociologiques actuelles, mis en ligne le 15 octobre 2025, consulté le 22 janvier 2026. URL : http://journals.openedition.org/comicalites/10854 ; DOI : https://doi.org/10.4000/155vc

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Auteurs

Isabelle Licari-Guillaume

Isabelle Licari-Guillaume (she/her) is a junior lecturer in Anglophone Studies at Aix Marseille Université, France. Her research focuses on comics through the prisms of cultural history, translation studies and gender, on which she has published several articles. She is the author of Vertigo Comics: British Writers, US Editors, and the Making of a Transformational Imprint (2022) and is a member of the editorial board at Comicalités: études de culture graphique. Her current project focuses on self-published science-fiction comics in the 1980s. She also translates Craig Thompson's graphic novels into French, notably Ginseng Roots (Casterman 2024).

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Timothy Sirjacobs

Timothy Sirjacobs studied French, German and Dutch literature at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB) and the Heinrich Heine Universität (HHU). After obtaining his teaching diploma, he began his Ph.D. at KULeuven under the joint supervision of Elke Brems, Reine Meylaerts and Stéphanie Vanasten. As part of the BELTRANS project (KULeuven, UCLouvain and KBR), he is exploring intra-Belgian translation flows between 1970 and 2020, with a particular focus on poetry and comics.

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