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Notes
See Marcel Mauss, “Les civilisations. Éléments et formes”, in Marcel Mauss, Oeuvres 2, Paris, Les Éditions de Minuit, 1969, pp. 456-479, [on line] http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/mauss_marcel/oeuvres_2/oeuvres_2_13/mauss_les_civilisation.pdf
See Edward B. Tyler, Primitive Culture Research into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, art, and custom 1, London, John Murray, 1871, p. 31, as well as Herbert Baldus, “Adolf Bastian”, Revista de Antropologia, n°14, 1966, p. 129.
Ibid., p. 8.
Ibid., p. 9: “It is above the bedrock of civilizations that the societies stand out, create their idiosyncrasies and individual character.”
Marcel Mauss, La nation, Paris, PUF (1e éd. Marcel Fournier and Jean Terrier), 2013, p. 125.
George Steiner, “Extraterritorial”, Extraterritorial, New York: Atheneum, 1971, pp. 3-11.
Anna-Maria Mazzucchelli, “Richard Neutra,” Casabella, no. 85, January 1935, pp. 18-19.
Georg Simmel, “The Stranger,” in Kurt H. Wolff (ed.), The Sociology of Georg Simmel, New York, The Free Press, 1964, pp. 402-408.
Sigfried Giedion, Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, London, London Gallery Ltd., 1937: “The emotive values latent in modern industry and in realities of modern life in general were lost on the townsman in much the same way as the peasant of previous ages was irresponsive to the emotional appeal of the landscape.[…] Unlike the Berlin artistic circles still fettered by expressionism […], the Hungarians had succeeded in giving a far more precise and coherent expression to their consciousness of our age […] working on parallel lines to L’Esprit Nouveau in which Le Corbusier and Ozenfant had been revealing the interdependence of painting, sculpture and the technique of modern industry.”
Le Corbusier, Quelles sont les formes d’agrégation d’une nouvelle société machiniste ? Manuscript, Paris, Fondation Le Corbusier, December 3, 1938, 2.
See Étienne Balibar and Immanuel Wallerstein, Race, nation, class: Ambiguous Identities, London, Verso, 2002, p. 96.
George Steiner, “Extraterritorial”, op. cit., p. 3.
Lucio Costa, “Depoimento de um arquiteto carioca”, 1951, in Alberto Xavier (ed.), Lucio Costa: Sôbre Arquitetura, Porto Alegre, Editora UniRitter, 2007, p. 197.
Of note among those nationalist intellectuals are José Francisco, Oliveira Viana, Gilberto de Mello Freyre, and Sergio Buarque de Holanda, whose writings between the 1920s and 1930s were preceded by the analysis of Silvio Romero, one of the first Brazilian thinkers to recover the Portuguese element in the formation of Brazilian nationality. See Alberto Luiz Schneider, Sílvio Romero Hermeneuta do Brasil, São Paulo, Annablume, 2005; José Francisco Oliveira Viana, Populações meridionais do Brasil: história, organização, psicologia, Rio de Janeiro, Editora Jose Olympio, 1952 (first edition, 1920); Gilberto de Mello Freyre, Casa-Grande e Senzala, Rio de Janeiro, Editora Jose Olympio, 1978 (first edition, 1933); and Sergio Buarque de Holanda, Raízes do Brasil, São Paulo, Companhia das Letras, 1995 (first edition 1936).
See Anat Falbel, “Questions on space and intersections in the historiography of modern Brazilian architecture”, ABE Journal 7, 2015, [online] http://abe.revues.org/2610; DOI: 10.4000/abe.2610. Lucio Costa’s notion of the figural relationship between Brazilian colonial and modern architecture appeared for the first time in 1948, in “Depoimento.” See Lucio Costa, Lucio Costa. Registro de uma vivência, São Paulo, Empresa das Artes, 1995, pp. 198-200.
George Steiner, “Extraterritorial”, op. cit., p. 3.
On the role of Lucio Costa in the development of Goodwin’s exhibition concept, see Mauricio Lissovsky and Paulo Sergio Moraes de Sá, Colunas da Educacão. A construção do Ministério da Educação e Saúde, Rio de Janeiro, MEC/IPHAN/Fundação Getúlio Vargas/CPDOC, 1996. See also Zilah Quezado Deckker, Brazil Built: The Architecture of the Modern Movement in Brazil, London/New York, Spon Press, 2001.
Until the end of the 1980s, Brazilian intellectuals were very reserved around the issue of cultural transferences. They resented the schema of the history of influences, through which one culture was submitted to the influence of another through the perspective of mediators, translators, and a context in which the receiver culture was mostly considered to be in a lower position, implying a cultural hierarchy. The cultural atmosphere can be exemplified by the debates inside the SAL (Seminarios de Arquitectura Latina Americanos) on an abstract Latin American cultural and architectural identity, deprived of its substantial regional differences. See Gisela Barcellos de Souza, Tessituras híbridas ou o duplo regresso: Encontros latino-americanos e traduções culturais do debate sobre o Retorno à cidade, doctorate thesis, FAUUSP, 2013, pp. 83-87.
Michel Foucault, “Of Other Spaces: Utopias and Heterotopias,” in Joan Ockman (ed.), Architecture Culture 1943-1968: A Documentary Anthology, New York, Rizzoli, 1993, pp. 419-26.
Jean-François Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1984, xxiv.
See Étienne Balibar, “At the Borders of Europe,” in We, the People of Europe? Reflections on Transnational Citizenship, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2004, p. 1.
George Steiner, “Extraterritorial”, op. cit., p. 11.
See Beatriz Piccolotto S. Bueno, Desenho e Desígnio: o Brasil dos Engenheiros Militares (1500-1822), São Paulo, EDUSP, 2012.
This expression was developed by scholar and writer Horace M. Kallen, in his 1915 article “Democracy Versus the Melting Pot”, in Culture and Democracy in the United States, New Brunswick, Transaction Publishers, 1998, pp. 59-117.
The initiatives of the architectural press are exemplified by the magazines Shelter (1932-1933; 1938-1939) and USA Tomorrow (1953), both edited by Maxwell Levinson. These publications not only championed modern architecture but also included the work and writing of American, European, and émigré architects who had embraced modern ideals and language.
See Sigfried Giedion, Space, Time and Architecture: The Growth of a New Tradition, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1997. Still acutely sensitive to issues of cultural circulation in 1951, Giedion used a paraphrase of Heinrich Heine’s famous expression to suggest that Richard Neutra took the new conception of space-time with him “as luggage” to United States. See Willy Boesiger, Richard Neutra Buildings and Projects, Zürich, Verlag Girsberger, 1951, p. 9.
William H. Jordy, The Impact of European Modernism in the Mid-Twentieth Century, New York, Oxford University Press, 1986.
Reyner Banham, A Concrete Atlantis: U.S Industrial Building and European Modern Architecture 1900–1925, Cambridge, The MIT Press, 1986.
See Stephanie Barron and Sabine Eckmann (eds.), Exiles + Emigrés. The Flight of European Artists from Hitler, Los Angeles, Los Angeles County Museum of Art/Harry Abrams Publishers, 1997.
Charlotte Benton, A Different World: Émigré Architects in Britain: 1928–1958, London, Riba Heinz Gallery, 1995); Sibel Bozdogan, Modernism and Nation Building: Turkish Architectural Culture in the Early Republic, Seattle, University of Washington Press, 2001; Esra Akcan, Architecture in Translation: Germany, Turkey, and the Modern House, London, Duke University Press, 2012; Bernd Nicolai, Moderne und Exil: deutschsprachige Architekten in der Türkei, 1925-1955, Berlin, Verlag für Bauwesen, 1998; Bernd Nicolai and Charlotte Benton, Architektur und Exil: Kulturtransfer und architektonische Emigration 1930 bis 1950, Trier, Porta Alba, 2003; Nitza Metzger-Szmuk, Véra Pinto-Lasry, Vivianne Barsky and Dani Karavan, Dwelling on the Dunes: Tel Aviv, Modern Movement and Bauhaus Ideals, Paris, Éditions de l’Éclat, Paris, 2004; Mechthild Borries-Knopp, Building Paradise: Exile architecture in California: Villa Aurora Architecture Symposium 2003, Berlin, Kreis der Fruende und Fördere der Villa Aurora, 2004; and Arnoldo Gaite, Wladimiro Acosta, Buenos Aires, Nobuko, 2007.
The decades of the country’s great industrial development began under President Getúlio Vargas and culminated with President Juscelino Kubitschek’s economic “national development” project, which stimulated and attracted international capital and multinational enterprises. See Wilson Suzigan, Indústria brasileira-origem e desenvolvimento, São Paulo, Brasiliense, 1986; Ricardo Alberto Bielschowsky, Pensamento econômico brasileiro: o ciclo ideológico do desenvolvimentismo 1963-1964, Rio de Janeiro, Contraponto, 1996); Warren Dean, A industrializacão de São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Difel, 1976); and Jose Maria Dias Pereira, “Uma breve história do desenvolvimentismo no Brasil,” Cadernos do Desenvolvimento 6, n°9, July-Dec. 2011, pp. 121-41.
See Georg Simmel, “The Stranger,” in Kurt H. Wolff (ed.), The Sociology of Georg Simmel, op. cit., pp. 402–08. The article was published in English in 1921. See Georg Simmel, “The Stranger,” in Robert E. Park and Ernst W. Burgess (eds.), Introduction to the Science of Sociology, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1921, pp. 322-27.
Ibid., p. 408.
Kader Konuk, East-West Mimesis: Auerbach in Turkey, Stanford, Stanford University Press, 2010.
“Mimesis is quite consciously a book written by a particular person in a particular place during the early 1940s.” See Herbert Lindenberger, “On the reception of Mimesis”, in Seth Lerer (ed.), Literary History and the Challenge of Philology: The Legacy of Erich Auerbach, Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1996, p. 209. See also page 5 of Lerer’s introduction to the book. In his introduction to Mimesis, Auerbach justified and explained his writing process: “[T]he book was written during the war and at Istanbul, where the libraries are not well equipped for European studies . . . it is quite possible that the book owes its existence to just this lack of a rich and specialized library” (Erich Auerbach, Mimesis, São Paulo, Perspectiva, 2013, p. 502).
Erich Auerbach, “Philologie der Weltliteratur,” in Walter Muschg and E. Staiger (eds.), Weltliteratur: Festgabe für Frtiz Strich zum 70. Geburtstag, Bern, Francke, 1952, pp. 39-50. The article was translated into English by Edward and Marie Said as “Philology and Weltliteratur”, and published by The Centennial Review, xiii, n°1, 1969, pp. 1-17.
Ibid., p. 17. Auerbach illustrated his viewpoint using this beautiful description by Hugo of St. Victor: “The person who finds his homeland sweet is still a tender beginner; he to whom every soil is as his native one is already strong, but he is perfect to whom the entire world is a foreign place.” See also Edward Said’s appropriation of the same concept through Auerbach’s writing in Edward Said, “Reflections on Exile,” in Reflections on Exile and Other Essays, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 2001, pp. 185–86.
See Anat Falbel, “Cartas da América: Arquitetura e Modernidade,” in Roberto Segre et al., Arquitetura+arte+cidade: um debate internacional, Rio de Janeiro, Viana & Mosley Editora/PROURB, 2010, pp. 120-135; “Sobre utopia e exílios na América Latina,” Politéia (UESB), 9, 2009, pp. 107-140; and “El CIAM y la Ciudad Funcional en América Latina entre 1930 y 1946”, Arqui tectónica, 18-19, 2010, pp. 135-146.
Sobre Pierre Verger, manuscript, Archives of the Lina Bo Bardi Institute. On the photographer Pierre Verger see Pierre Verger, Pierre Verger 50 anos de fotografia 1932–1982, Salvador, Fundação Pierre Verger, 2011.
Theodor W. Adorno, Minima Moralia: Meditazioni della Vita Offesa, Turin: Giulio Einaudi Editore, 1979, pp. 34-35. The book written between 1944 and 1949, was first published in 1951.
Bruno Zevi, “Brasile incerto ed eclettico, architetto Lucian Korngold”, L’Architettura Cronache e Storia, 17, anno II, March 1957, pp. 806-807.
Bruno Zevi, Erich Mendelsohn. Opera Completa: Architettura e Immagini Architettoniche, Turin, Texto & Immagine, 1997.
Bruno Zevi, “A Fábrica dos Sonhos,” in Cidadela da Liberdade, São Paulo, SESC/Instituto Lina Bo e P. M. Bardi, 1999, p. 106. The article was first published in L’Expresso, May 1987. See Anat Falbel, “Bruno et Lina : entre discussions et disputes...comme de veritables amis”, in Alessandra Criconia and Elisabeth Essaian (eds.), Lina Bo Bardi enseignements partagés, Paris, Archibooks et Sautereau, 2017, pp. 51-65. On Lina Bo Bardi, see also R. Zeuler, M. de A. Lima, Lina Bo Bardi, New Haven, Yale University Press, 2013.
The concept of “in-between”, meaning a space of dialogue and encounter found its references in Martin Buber’s elaborations under the influence of Simmel’s sensible writings. The concept was recovered as a theoretical tool by Rolf Gutmann and Theo Marz at the CIAM’s Interim Congress at Sigtuna, 1952, and appropriated by Aldo van Eyck. See Martin Buber, Between Man and Man, London, Routledge, 2002, pp. 22-38; Georg Simmel, “Bridge and Door”, Theory, Culture & Society 11, n°5, February, 1994, pp. 5-10; Francis Strauven, Aldo van Eyck: The Shape of Relativity, Amsterdam, Architectura & Natura, 1998, p. 357. See also Anthony Vidler, “Spatial Estrangement in Georg Simmel and Siegfried Kracauer,” New German Critique, n°54, Special Issue on Siegfried Kracauer (1991), pp. 31-45.
Among the academics who promoted eclecticism was architect Christiano Stockler das Neves, a graduate from the School of Fine Arts of the University of Pennsylvania. In 1931, Stockler das Neves, a ferocious critic of Warchavchik and modern architecture, wrote that “Futurism is just utilitarian […]. It is practiced by people less given to art: Russians, Germans, Dutch, and Jews.” See Christiano Stockler das Neves, “O Bluff Architectonico,” in Architectura e Construções, 2, n° 23, November, 1931, pp. 1-6.
In his book José Mariano Filho, one of the main promoters of the neocolonial movement and future director of the National School of Fine Arts in Rio de Janeiro [Escola Nacional de Belas Artes do Rio de Janeiro], confronted Warchavchik directly: “Foreigners with no fatherland […] cannot understand the delicate sentiment of nationality that surrounds the architectural problem, and still impose on their clients the modern house.” See José Mariano Filho, À margem do Problema arquitetônico nacional, Rio de Janeiro, Estúdio de Artes Gráficas C. Mendes Junior, 1943, p. 32.
Lucio Costa, “Depoimento de um arquiteto carioca” (1951), in Alberto Xavier (ed.), Lucio Costa: Sôbre Arquitetura, Porto Alegre, Editora UniRitter, 2007, p. 197.
See Miguel Antonio Buzzar, João Batista Vilanova Artigas. Elementos para a compreensão de um caminho da arquitetura brasileira, 1938–1967, Sao Paulo, Senac/Editora UNESP, 2014, p. 283; Agnaldo Aricê Caldas Farias, A Arquitetura Eclipsada. Notas sobre história e arquitetura a propósito da obra de Gregori Warchvchik, introdutor da arquitetura moderna no Brasil, master’s thesis, UNICAMP, Campinas, 1990. Among the historians who carried on Costa and Artigas’s narrative concerning Warchavchik several years before it began to be reviewed by a new generation of architecture historians, I would mention the very naïve description of Warchavchik’s reception in Brazil by the French historian Yves Bruand in his Arquitetura Contemporânea no Brasil, São Paulo, Editora Perspectiva, 1981), pp. 63-71; as well as the unfortunately biased and superficial version presented by Carlos A. Lemos in “Arquitetura Contemporânea,” in Walter Zanini (ed.), História Geral da Arte no Brasil, São Paulo, Instituto W. Moreira Salles/Fundação Djalma Guimarães, 1983), 831–35. The first author to defend Warchvachik’s place within Brazilian historiography would be the critic Geraldo Ferraz, who, with the support of Pietro Maria Bardi, published Warchvchik e a introdução da nova arquitetura no Brasil: 1925–1940, São Paulo, MASP, 1965.
John Hollander, “Introduction,” in Saul Steinberg, The Passport, New York, Vintage, 1979, no page number.
See Liane Lefaivre, “Puer ludens,” in Times of Creative Destruction, London, Routledge, 2017.
On Brazilian immigration politics during the interwar and Second World War period, see Fabio Koifman, Quixote nas trevas. O embaixador Souza Dantas e os refugiados do nazismo, Rio de Janeiro, Record, 2002; Avraham Milgram, Os judeus do Vaticano, Rio de Janeiro, Imago, 1994.
See Anat Falbel, “Lucjan Korngold: a trajetória de um arquiteto imigrante”, Doctorate Thesis, FAUUSP, 2003, pp. 106-107.
On Giancarlo Palanti, see Aline Coelho Sanches, “A Obra e a trajetória do arquiteto Giancarlo Palanti. Itália e Brasil”, master’s thesis, EESCUSP, São Carlo, 2004; and Ricardo H. Medrano and Celso E. Ohno, “Giancarlo Palanti: Uma trayetoria de rupturas y continuidades,” in Ramón Gutiérrez (ed.), Los Palanti: Su trayetoria in Italia, Argentina, Uruguay y Brasil, Buenos Aires, Embajada Italia/Cedodal, 2015, pp. 153-162. On Adolf Franz Heep, see Paulo Y. Fujioka, “O Edificio Italia e a Arquitetura dos Edifícios de Escritorios em São Paulo”, master’s thesis, FAUUSP, 1996; Marcelo Consiglio Barbosa, “A obra de Adolf Franz Heep no Brasil”, master’s thesis, FAUUSP, 2002; and Joana M de Carvalho e Silva, “O arquiteto e a produção da cidade: a experiência de Jacques Pilon em perspectiva”, doctorate thesis, FAUUSP, 2010.
See Anat Falbel, “Lucjan Korngold; a trajetoria de um arquiteto imigrante”, op. cit., 2003.
Jose Lira, Warchavchik Fraturas da Modernidade, São Paulo, COSACNAIFY, 2011.
Gregori Warchavchik , lecture at the Institute of Architects of Rio de Janeiro, 1971.
Pietro Maria Bardi, História da arte brasileira: pintura, escultura, arquitetura, outras artes, São Paulo, Melhoramentos, 1975.
On Pietro Maria Bardi, see Francesco Tentori, P.M. Bardi, São Paulo, Instituto Lina Bo e P.M. Bardi/Imprensa Oficial, 2000; Riccardo Mariani, Razionalismo e architettura moderna: Storia di una polemica, Milan: Edizioni Comunità, 1989; Instituto Lina Bo e P.M. Bardi, Um Certo Ponto de Vista- Pietro Maria Bardi- 100 anos, Catalog, São Paulo, Pinacoteca do Estado, 2000.
See Pietro Maria Bardi in his introduction to the exhibtion catalog Warchavchik e as origens da arquitetura moderna no Brasil (Museu de Arte de São Paulo Assis Chateaubriand, August 1971). Exhibition sponsored by the immigrant couple Aracy e Samuel Klabin.
See Anat Falbel, “The CIAM and the Functional City in Latin America between 1930 and 1946”, Journal ArquiTectónica, n°18-19, Mexico City, Architecture Department of the Universidad Iberoamericana A.C, 2010, pp. 135-145.
Louis Wirth, Le Ghetto, Grenoble : Presses Universitaires de Grenoble, 2006.
Ibid., p. 224.
Within the groups of origins as characterized above one could mention among the most active immigrant architects of the period the Italian speaking group that included, among others, Rino Levi (1901-1965), Daniele Calabi (1906-1964), Giancarlo Palanti (1906-1977), Lina Bo Bardi (1915-1992), Mario Russo, and even Bernard Rudofsky (1905-1988) despite his Austrian origin; an Eastern European group represented by names such as Lucjan Korngold (1897-1963), who was born and studied in Warsaw, Jorge Zalszupin (1922), who was certified in Bucharest, and Victor Reif (1909-2000), who studied in Germany; or Gregori Warchavchik (1896-1972), born in Odessa, though he studied with Piacentini at the University of Rome; a German group formed by architects such as Alexandre Altberg (1908) who attended Bauhaus; and also those who had been trained in France, such as Jacques Pilon (1905-1973) from the École des Beaux Arts, and Franz Heep (1902-1978), who had studied and worked with Adolf Meyer in Frankfurt before going to Paris, where he collaborated with André Lurçat, Le Corbusier, and Jean Ginsberg.
See Anat Falbel, Lucjan Korngold; a trajetoria de um arquiteto imigrante, Doctoral thesis, Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism, University of São Paulo, 2003, pp. 130-139. Germaine Burchard was the heir of nineteenth-century German emigrant Meir Martim Burchard, who had acquired a representative stock of urban land in the city of São Paulo. After marrying the Polish nobleman Count Roman W. S. Sangusko, Germaine’s agency turned into the main employer of Polish refugee professionals in the city of São Paulo, as well a frequent associate of Polish entrepreneurs involved in real estate development.
Jacques Derrida, O monolinguismo do outro ou a Prótese de Origem, Porto, Campo das Letras-Editores, S.A., 2001. See also Anat Falbel, Anat Falbel, “Immigrant Architects in Brazil. A Historiographical Issue”, DOCOMOMO Journal, Paris, v. 34, 2005, pp. 58-65.
On the architect Rino Levi, see Renato Anelli, Rino Levi arquitetura e cidade, São Paulo, Romano Guerra Editora, 2001.
See Michael Werner and Bénédicte Zimmermann, “Beyond Comparison: Histoire croisée and the challenge of Reflexivity,” in Religion and History 45 (2006), 30–50; Michel Espagne, Les transferts culturels franco-allemands (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1999); and Transferts: Les relations interculturelles dans l’espace franco-allemand, ed. Michel Espagne and Michel Werner, (Paris: Editions Recherche sur les civilizations, 1988).
“The New Regionalismo” (1954), in Architecture you and me. The diary of a development, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1958), p.138
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