- * This work is financed by national funds through the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technolog (...)
1In the complex landscape of sexual identities, a significant yet frequently overlooked aspect is the experiences and challenges faced by lesbians. Despite the advances made in the LGBTIQ (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Intersex, and Queer/Questioning) rights movement, lesbian voices often remain muted and marginalized within the broader discourse of sexual orientations. This phenomenon, known as lesbian erasure, casts a shadow over the diverse spectrum of human sexuality, hindering genuine inclusivity within the community (Forstie, 2020; Wermuth & Canciani, 2018).
2Erasure in the realm of sexual identities involves the marginalization or rendering invisible of particular sexual orientations or gender identities. It operates insidiously, permeating various aspects of society, from literature and media to legislation and social discourse. Lesbian erasure specifically denotes the tendency to overlook, deny, or dismiss the existence, experiences, and contributions of lesbians within the LGBTIQ community. This erasure stands as a clear testimony to the challenges faced by individuals whose experiences and narratives are often obscured, minimized, or invalidated (Enszer, 2022).
3The intersection of heteronormativity and the gender binary creates a system where those who do not conform face discrimination and violence, reinforcing social hierarchies (Marchia & Sommer, 2019; Regan & Meyer, 2021). The gender binary reinforces existing power structures and inequalities, leading to the marginalization and oppression of gender-nonconforming individuals (Darwin, 2017; Suárez & Slattery, 2018).
4Addressing the erasure of lesbian identities within the confines of the gender binary is crucial. This binary view dismisses the rich tapestry of gender identities beyond male and female, often implying that lesbian relationships and identities are somehow lesser or deviant because they do not conform to the heteronormative ideal. Lesbians, especially those not fitting stereotypical images, are frequently made invisible in mainstream discussions about relationships and identity (Nölke, 2018; Scanlon & Lewis, 2017).
5Lesbian identities, especially those that deviate from dominant cultural norms, are marginalized within both mainstream society and the LGBTIQ community itself. Paradoxically, in some lesbian communities, the individuals who challenge normative gender expressions or identities are both marginalized and positioned to question the very boundaries that exclude them (Butler, 1997). The gender binary and heteronormative ideals create a framework where lesbians who do not conform – those who are butch, gender-nonconforming, or of marginalized races or abilities – are seen as deviant, reinforcing the systems of exclusion and oppression that define who is included or erased. Lesbians, particularly those who resist traditional gender roles or fail to conform to the binary expectations of femininity, are often cast as “monstrous” or abnormal. These figures embody a broader societal anxiety around non-normative bodies and desires but also possess transformative potential (Halberstam, 2018).
6The struggle faced by lesbian individuals is further complicated when viewed through the lens of intersectionality. Lesbian women of color, disabled lesbians, and those from other marginalized communities experience increased levels of erasure due to the intersection of their sexual orientation with other aspects of their identity. Their voices are silenced not only due to their sexual orientation but also because of their race, disability, or socioeconomic status, intensifying the erasure of their experience (Patel, 2019; Van Zyl et al., 2018).
7But again, certain identities in lesbian communities – those that intersect with race, disability, or socioeconomic status – can be rendered invisible to uphold a more palatable, homogenous vision of lesbian identity. Lesbian erasure, therefore, operates as a form of abjection (Kristeva, 2024), where lesbians who do not fit the normative mold – those who are poor, nonwhite, gender nonconforming – are discarded or ignored to maintain a cohesive community image. However, it is important to understand that exclusion is not just a mechanism for othering but a constitutive process through which communities define themselves (Butler, 2015).
8The erasure of lesbian identities leads to feelings of isolation, invalidation, and self-doubt, adversely affecting mental health and overall well-being, and hinders the progress of LGBTIQ rights movements by perpetuating ignorance and reinforcing discriminatory attitudes (Valentine & Skelton, 2003).
9Affirming lesbian identities is often understood as reinforcing biological essentialism and gender binarism. On the contrary, I argue that affirming lesbian identities crucially contributes to questioning the gender binary disrupting pervasive heteronormativity and patriarchy within society. The specificities of lesbian identities at the intersection of gender and sexual orientation have the potential to make visible the way in which the power structures of heterosexism and patriarchy will control people’s lives and to question the stereotypes that support gender binarism (Sumerau et al., 2020).
10The author wishes to clarify that the word “women” used in this text to refer to lesbians should be understood as any individual who identifies, is read as, or is socialized as a woman. This paper starts by emphasizing the importance of affirming lesbian identities to question, challenge, and reshape our understanding of gender. It acknowledges the intricacies of power dynamics, cultural contexts, and individual agency by exploring the fluid nature of lesbian identities and the complexity that arises from diverse experiences. Following this, the interconnections between lesbian identities and trans-exclusionary radical feminism (TERF) ideology is questioned. The subsequent section discusses how biological essentialism and gender binary contribute to the erasure of lesbian identities, leading to invisibility and discrimination. It moves on to present a critical examination of lesbian erasure within the broader LGBTIQ movement. The final part of the paper explores the concept of intersectionality, and how it affects lesbians, particularly the double bind faced by lesbians who experience discrimination based on both their sexual orientation and other intersecting identities such as race, ethnicity, religious beliefs, or socioeconomic status. Finally, it concludes by emphasizing the need of a paradigm shift, embracing the diversity within lesbian identities, challenging binary constructs, and fostering inclusivity.
11In the realm of identity politics, affirming lesbian identities has long been a topic of debate. Critics argue that such affirmation reinforces biological essentialism and rigid gender binaries (Gottschalk, 2003; Greene, 2021). However, I propose a contrary perspective: affirming lesbian identities is not a step backward into essentialism and binary constructs but, it is in fact, a revolutionary one. It is a radical act that questions, challenges, and reshapes our understanding of gender. By embracing and validating lesbian experiences, we create a space that challenges the very foundations of the gender binary, disrupting heteronormativity, and dismantling patriarchal structures. It’s not just about accepting diverse sexual orientations; it’s about embracing a spectrum of gender identities and expressions. They challenge the status quo, encouraging society to reconsider its preconceived notions about gender and sexual orientation (Enszer, 2022). This act of validation doesn’t strengthen the gender binary; it dismantles it.
12Lesbian identities are uniquely situated at the crossroads of gender and sexual orientation. They don’t adhere to the traditional norms dictated by a heteronormative society (Gunn et al., 2021). This deviation from the norm offers a potent lens through which we can analyze and deconstruct gender binary. At its core, affirming lesbian identities is an assertion of agency. It is a refusal to be confined within the narrow boundaries of heterosexuality and challenges the deeply ingrained power structures of patriarchy (Marchia & Sommer, 2019). By examining the specificity of lesbian identities, we unravel the complexities of human experiences. Lesbians, by their very existence, expose the simplistic and erroneous stereotypes that support gender binarism. They showcase the vast diversity within the spectrum of human sexuality and gender expression. Through their relationships and lives, lesbians disclose the fluidity and complexity of gender and sexual orientation. Lesbians may identify as butch, femme, or any other gender expression, thereby challenging the traditional masculine-feminine binary and encouraging a more nuanced approach to gender identity (Ben Hagai, 2023).
13Lesbian identities also challenge the male gaze, disrupting the pervasive notion that women’s sexuality exists primarily for male consumption. Lesbian relationships exist outside the realm of male desire, asserting that women’s romantic and sexual lives are valid and fulfilling on their own terms (Browne, 2021).
14An intersectional approach to lesbian identities challenges the erasure caused by simplistic identity frameworks and opens the space for a fuller understanding of lesbian lives. By accounting for the full spectrum of experiences, it creates the possibility for a more equitable and nuanced discourse, where all voices can be heard and validated. This recognition of diversity is thus a critical intervention in both scholarship and activism, one that is resistant to erasure and insists on the visibility and value of all lesbians in their multiplicity.
15Recognizing the intersections of race, class, gender identity, along with other axes of identity, highlights how such complexities shape different experiences of marginalization, resistance, and the formation of identity. The recognition of diversity within lesbian identities fosters a more inclusive, comprehensive understanding of identity and oppression. It challenges the very foundations of erasure by making visible the varied ways lesbians of color, working-class lesbians, and others navigate power, desire, and exclusion (Lorde, 1995). Failing to account for the multiplicity of lesbian experiences – whether racial, cultural, or otherwise – results in the erasure of those who exist at these intersections. Acknowledging and amplifying the voices of marginalized lesbian identities offers resistance to reductive categorizations and makes visible those who would otherwise be erased from the broader discourse (Jones, 2021).
16In contemporary discourse, the concepts of “woman” and “lesbian” are far from static; they are fluid and constructed in specific spatial and temporal dimensions. The term “lesbian”, once perceived as a straightforward label, has evolved into a complex entity interwoven with power dynamics specific to particular places. No longer confined to a rigid set of definitions, the term “lesbian” has transcended its traditional boundaries, morphing into a multifaceted identity that defies easy categorization. In this shifting landscape, the question of who or what a lesbian “is” becomes entangled with multifaceted identities, blended into diverse experiences (Ben Hagai, 2023; Forstie, 2020; Sumerau et al., 2020).
17The term “lesbian” is not a monolith; it is malleable, used, reclaimed, and denounced in relation to prevailing power structures. The very essence of being a lesbian is intertwined with relations of power that are shaped by spatial and temporal dimensions (Browne & Ferreira, 2018). There is no universal definition or singular understanding of this term, for it morphs and adapts based on the contexts in which it is used. Unlike the static stereotypes of the past, contemporary understandings of lesbianism recognize its malleability. The once-clear lines that delineated sexual orientations have blurred, allowing a diversity of experiences to emerge (Ben Hagai, 2023).
18Individuals who identify as lesbians, claim the term, however it may be perceived as such, and navigate a complex terrain where the surrounding context plays a crucial role. One of the key aspects of navigating lesbian identities lies in acknowledging the power dynamics at play. The very essence of being a lesbian is intertwined with relationships of power, which vary significantly among individuals. These power dynamics are not just external; they exist within communities and even within the individual, shaping desires, relationships, and self-perception (Valentine & Skelton, 2003). Just as there is no singular global LGBTIQ culture or identity, there is no singular lesbian culture, identity, desire, or relationship form. The diversity of human experiences defies the confinement of a singular definition.
19Lesbianism, when approached as identity politics, tends to fix desires, behaviors, and practices within rigid boundaries, often failing to acknowledge the fluidities inherent in gender and sexual identities (Chanady, 2022). This fixation not only limits understanding but also stifles the richness of human experiences that do not neatly fit within predefined categories.
20The categorization of “lesbian” frequently centers around cisgender lesbians within the context of Western cultures, creating challenges for individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds, including transgender and intersex people, to identify comfortably as lesbians (Banerjea et al., 2019; Browne & Ferreira, 2018). This Western-centric lens obscures the varied ways in which lesbianism is perceived, lived, and expressed in different cultures, making it essential to broaden our perspectives and challenge these limitations. Lesbian identities are as diverse as the individuals who claim them, encompassing a spectrum of gender expressions, sexual orientations, and cultural backgrounds. The global perspective on lesbian identities is broadening, thus extending to transgender and intersex individuals, whose experiences as lesbians are valid and meaningful (Beemyn & Eliason, 2016).
21To truly comprehend the complexities surrounding the term “lesbian”, one must explore how this category is deployed, resisted, and sometimes rendered invisible (Browne & Ferreira, 2018). It is a journey that demands a nuanced understanding of power dynamics, cultural contexts, and individual agency.
22The tensions between TERF (Trans-Exclusionary Radical Feminist) ideology and lesbian activism stem from differing perspectives on gender, identity, and inclusivity within the feminist and LGBTIQ communities (Rogers, 2023; Thomsen & Essig, 2022). These tensions have been a significant point of contention and debate, leading to complex discussions. TERF ideology often centers on a specific definition of womanhood based on biological sex. According to this perspective, only those individuals assigned female at birth are considered women, and transgender women should be excluded from certain aspects of feminism and women’s spaces. TERF activists argue for women-only spaces exclusive to cisgender women, believing that the inclusion of transgender women erodes the specific experiences of cisgender women (Gailey & Brown, 2016). This perspective is not universally accepted within feminist circles and has sparked significant debate and disagreement (Thomsen & Essig, 2022).
23Many early feminist spaces were inclusive of diverse gender expressions, and trans women, including trans lesbians, have been integral to various feminist movements. In fact, transphobia is a relatively recent development within certain feminist ideologies, rather than an intrinsic part of feminist theory (Stryker, 2007). Transphobia is not a feminist argument but rather a reactionary stance that seeks to police the boundaries of gender and identity in ways that mirror patriarchal norms.
24Feminism, at its core, advocates for gender equality and challenges societal norms and expectations related to gender. Within feminism, there are ongoing discussions and debates about the inclusion of transgender individuals and their experiences. Some feminists argue for an expansive and inclusive definition of womanhood, welcoming transgender women into feminist spaces (Rogers, 2023). Others, including some TERFs, hold more exclusive views. From an inclusive feminist perspective, the focus is on solidarity among all individuals who experience gender-based oppression. This perspective acknowledges that despite their different life experiences, transgender women face unique challenges related to gender identity. Feminism, in this view, becomes a movement that fights for the rights and dignity of all women, cisgender and transgender alike. These inclusive feminists argue that the struggle for gender equality should not exclude anyone based on their gender identity (Nash, 2011). They recognize the importance of supporting and amplifying the voices of transgender women, who often face disproportionate levels of discrimination and violence.
25Within the lesbian community, a spectrum of viewpoints exists regarding the inclusion of transgender individuals, particularly transgender women. Some lesbians may align with TERF ideology, arguing that spaces designated for cisgender women should exclude transgender women. Their concerns revolve around issues of identity, biology, or societal roles. These individuals often fear that the presence of transgender women in lesbian spaces might compromise only lesbians’ safe spaces of mutual identification (Rogers, 2023). However, it’s essential to emphasize that the TERF perspective is not universally shared among lesbians. Many lesbian activists and the broader LGBTIQ community embrace a more expansive and inclusive definition of womanhood that includes transgender women, advocating for transgender rights and inclusion. They argue that gender identity is not solely determined by biological factors but also encompasses self-identification and personal experience. TERF ideology often makes a distinction between gender identity and sexual orientation, focusing primarily on biological sex. In contrast, many lesbian activists understand and appreciate the interconnectedness of gender identity and sexual orientation. They acknowledge that lesbianism is about emotional, and/or sexual attraction to women, irrespective of whether the individuals involved are cisgender or transgender (Browne et al., 2016; Browne & Ferreira, 2018). They understand that feminism should be intersectional, recognizing and addressing the interconnected nature of social categorizations such as gender and sexual orientation. They advocate for inclusive spaces that welcome transgender women, recognizing the importance of solidarity among all individuals who face gender-based discrimination. They emphasize the shared experiences of marginalization and the need for mutual support within the LGBTIQ community (Banerjea et al., 2019).
26There are several non-TERF spaces and organizations within lesbian activism worldwide that focus on inclusivity, support, and advocacy for all individuals regardless of their gender identity. In Portugal, there are diverse LGBTIQ associations but only one specifically lesbian rights association, Clube Safo, created in January 1996. Clube Safo clearly adopts a non‑TERF position, based on an inclusive understanding of women and lesbians. The association identifies their associates as “women, cis or trans, non-binary people who have relationships with women or people who are read as women”. Their mission is to build bridges with other collectives/associations to open the way for people who identify, are read as, or are socialized as women and not heterosexual, to have a place where they can exchange ideas, share opinions, meet other people like them and build community. Some noteworthy examples of their non-TERF positioning are a brochure on sexual health and the publication Zona Livre. The Lesbian Sexual Health brochure acknowledges that “lesbians, bisexuals, pansexuals, women who have relationships with women, people who identify as women, trans women or non-binary people, among others often do not find information on how to have safer sex lives or often do not find the information they are looking for” (Clube Safo, n.d.). The issue number 72 of Zona Livre questions what does it mean to be a lesbian:
How to build an inclusive lesbian association, which, without neglecting its identity, can welcome many others? We also need to understand that lesbians are not a monolithic identity, we are not all women (trans or cis); on the other hand, how can we continue to establish an openly lesbian space that gives visibility to women and in particular to lesbian women, a space that continues to be lacking? (Lima, 2023, p. 3)
27The article proposes a broader meaning of the word “Lesbian”, including realities such as bi, pan, women who love women, trans women, trans femininity, queer women, non-binary women, people who experience womanhood/femininity in a non-exclusive way, and all other realities that embrace the global lesbian reality in an inclusive way (Gomes, 2023, pp. 27–28).
28This a noteworthy example of the importance of lesbian activism to promote an inclusive understanding of gender-based discrimination by challenging heteronormativity and embracing intersectionality. Lesbian activism, such as Clube Safo, can advocate for gender equality, ensure visibility and representation, drive legal and social change, and build empowerment and community. By addressing these aspects, lesbian activism contributes significantly to fostering a more accepting and inclusive society for all individuals, regardless of their sexual orientation and/or gender identity.
29Societal expectations related to biology and gender roles have long played a significant role in shaping people’s understanding of sexual orientation, often leading to the erasure of lesbian individuals. This erasure is deeply rooted in traditional beliefs and stereotypes about gender and sexuality, which can have harmful consequences for those who identify as lesbians (Podmore & Tremblay, 2015).
30There is an intricate interplay between sexual identity, biological essentialism, gender binary, and oppression. Biological essentialism refers to the belief that there are innate, fundamental differences between individuals or groups based on biological factors such as genes, hormones, or brain structure. In the context of gender, biological essentialism posits that men and women inherently possess distinct traits, behaviors, and abilities due to their biological makeup. This concept has historically been used to justify and reinforce rigid gender roles in society (Greene, 2021). The connection between biological essentialism and rigid gender roles lies in the reinforcement of traditional norms and stereotypes. When people believe that certain qualities or roles are biologically predetermined, it can lead to the perpetuation of social expectations and limitations placed on individuals based on their gender. For example, the belief that women are naturally nurturing and emotional, while men are inherently aggressive and rational, can justify restricting women to domestic and caregiving roles, and men to positions of power and authority. These stereotypes not only limit individual potential but also contribute to gender inequality and discrimination (Darwin, 2017). Biological essentialism pathologizes same-sex attraction by framing it as a deviation from the supposed natural order. This perspective has historically been used to stigmatize and discriminate against lesbians, reinforcing heteronormativity and undermining the legitimacy of their relationships (Ben Hagai, 2023).
31The gender binary is a social construct that classifies individuals into two distinct and opposing categories: male and female. This rigid framework oversimplifies the diverse spectrum of human gender identities, ignoring non-binary, genderqueer, and genderfluid experiences (Butler, 1999). Non-binary individuals who identify as lesbians often face erasure within mainstream discourse. Societal structures, across various cultures and time periods, have consistently marginalized or rendered invisible lesbian identities and experiences. Lesbian erasure is a global phenomenon due to the pervasive influence of patriarchy, heteronormativity, and cultural gender roles that marginalize or ignore women who do not conform to these standards. Though the specifics may differ from region to region, the patterns of invisibility and denial recur worldwide, making lesbian erasure a universal issue that requires active recognition and resistance (Banerjea et al., 2019).
32Society struggles to comprehend the existence of non-binary genders within the confines of the gender binary, leading to the erasure of non-binary lesbian experiences (Suárez & Slattery, 2018). This belief system, rooted in traditional and often patriarchal ideologies, ignores the complexity of human sexuality, and disregards the validity of same-sex relationships.
33Examining the historical context of lesbian erasure, it becomes evident that the narratives of LGBTIQ individuals, especially lesbians, have been consistently overshadowed by societal norms and expectations. Lesbian erasure, characterized by the marginalization or denial of lesbian existence and experiences, finds its origins in embedded gender norms and societal expectations prevalent across diverse cultures and epochs (Browne, 2021).
34One of the fundamental roots of lesbian erasure lies in the patriarchal structure of societies where women were often treated as property and were expected to conform to prescribed gender roles. Lesbians faced dual discrimination – not only due to their sexual orientation but also because their very existence challenged established gender norms. This intersection of discrimination – based on both sexual orientation and defiance of gender norms – created a hostile environment for lesbians. They were forced to navigate not only their sexual identity but also the deep-rooted societal expectations about how women should behave and whom they should love. This dual burden illustrates the complexity of the challenges faced by lesbians within patriarchal societies and underscores the importance of understanding the intersectionality of oppression in the context of sexual orientation and gender identity (Banerjea et al., 2019; Browne & Ferreira, 2018). The challenges faced by lesbians within patriarchal contexts go beyond mere individual struggles. They are emblematic of a broader societal issue – the prevailing prejudices and discriminatory practices that perpetuate inequality. Lesbians often experience a lack of legal protections, limited access to healthcare, and diminished employment opportunities due to their sexual orientation. When coupled with gender-based discrimination, these challenges create a challenging barrier, impeding the pursuit of fulfillment and equal rights for lesbians. Gender-based discrimination is still a pervasive reality worldwide, inclusively in the European Union that upholds a vast range of gender equality legislation (Buzmaniuk, 2023). This reality presents an additional layer of challenges and discrimination to all those who identify as women or are perceived as women.
35Progress in LGBTIQ rights in recent decades did not eradicate lesbian erasure. Even within the feminist movement, lesbians found themselves marginalized; some feminists feared that association with homosexuality would undermine the fight for women’s rights. Lesbians had to battle against patriarchy, heteronormativity, and, at times, within the feminist movement itself. Despite the shared objective of challenging gender-based oppression, lesbians often found themselves excluded within feminist circles. One significant challenge was the pervasive influence of heteronormativity, the belief that heterosexuality is the norm. This perspective limited the feminist movement’s understanding of women’s issues to heterosexual experiences, sidelining the concerns of lesbians (Browne et al., 2016). Additionally, patriarchy, embedded in societal structures, resisted the inclusion of lesbian voices, perpetuating their marginalization within broader feminist discussions. Another factor contributing to this exclusion was the fear among some feminists that associating with homosexuality, particularly lesbianism, might divert attention from the overarching struggle for women’s rights, leading to a resistance to fully integrate lesbian concerns into the feminist agenda. Furthermore, some feminists, adhering to conservative views on sexuality, felt uncomfortable with the outspoken presence of lesbians within feminist spaces (Podmore & Tremblay, 2015). The marginalization of lesbians within the feminist movement underscores the importance of recognizing intersectionality, acknowledging the interconnected nature of social categorizations such as race, class, sexual orientation, and gender. Lesbians of color, for example, faced not only sexism and homophobia but also racism within both the feminist movement and the LGBTIQ community. Their experiences were often overlooked, emphasizing the need for a more inclusive and intersectional feminist approach (Patel, 2019; Van Zyl et al., 2018). Recent years have seen progress, with feminist movements becoming more inclusive and acknowledging the significance of LGBTIQ voices and experiences. However, the historical marginalization faced by lesbians within the feminist movement serves as a reminder of the ongoing work needed to create a truly inclusive feminist agenda that fights against all forms of oppression.
36Society has made progresses in acknowledging that sexual orientations exist along a spectrum, encompassing various identities beyond the heterosexual norm. Despite this progress, lesbians’ unique challenges and identities have not been fully acknowledged or understood. Lesbian visibility has faced challenges related to both sexism and homophobia.
37Lesbian experiences are diverse and intersect with race, ethnicity, class, and other social factors. However, the gender binary and biological essentialism often overshadow these intersections, leading to a monolithic and inaccurate portrayal of lesbian lives (Ben Hagai, 2023; Enszer, 2022).
38It is essential to recognize that gender identity and expression are complex and multifaceted aspects of human experience. Recognizing that individuals can be marginalized on multiple fronts – in this case, both as lesbians and as women – is essential for dismantling the patriarchal structures that perpetuate discrimination.
39Lesbian erasure, a complex issue within the LGBTIQ movement, refers to the marginalization, invisibility, and negation of lesbian identities and experiences within the broader LGBTIQ community (Podmore & Tremblay, 2015).
40Historical accounts of the LGBTIQ rights movement frequently focus on prominent gay figures while overlooking the significant contributions of lesbian. This selective storytelling perpetuates the idea that the movement was primarily led by gay men, erasing the crucial role played by lesbian activists. By omitting the contributions of lesbian activists, the historical narrative becomes skewed, creating an inaccurate representation of the LGBTIQ rights movement (Browne et al., 2016). This distortion perpetuates stereotypes and reinforces societal misconceptions about the roles of different genders and sexual orientations in social and political activism (Chanady, 2022). When the contributions of lesbian activists are overlooked, it sends a discouraging message to future generations of activists. Young lesbians may not find sufficient role models or historical figures to look up to, hindering their sense of identity, pride, and belonging within the LGBTIQ community. It also limits the depth of knowledge about the diverse experiences within the community, leading to a skewed perspective on the challenges faced by lesbians in particular. It is crucial to revisit historical accounts with a more inclusive lens. Recognizing and highlighting the contributions of lesbian activists and other marginalized voices provides a more accurate and nuanced understanding of the LGBTIQ rights movement.
41The media plays a powerful role in shaping societal attitudes and perceptions. However, when it comes to representing diverse sexual orientations, mainstream media frequently falls short, especially concerning lesbian experiences. Lesbian characters and relationships are significantly underrepresented in mainstream media compared to their gay male counterparts (Nölke, 2018). This lack of visibility sends the message that lesbian experiences are less significant or relevant, contributing to their erasure from public awareness. When lesbian characters are depicted, they often fall into stereotypical roles, perpetuating harmful clichés and misconceptions. These stereotypes may include portraying lesbians as overly sexualized objects of desire or as aggressive, masculine figures (Gunn et al., 2021). Such portrayals not only misrepresent the reality of lesbian lives but also reinforce harmful biases and prejudices. Media representation, or the lack thereof, directly influences how individuals perceive themselves and their place in society. Limited representation of lesbian relationships and experiences hampers the understanding of the broader society about the complexities of human sexuality. It creates a skewed and incomplete picture of the LGBTIQ community, reinforcing the false notion that LGBTIQ experiences are monolithic, which, in reality, is far from the truth. The erasure of the diversity of lesbian experiences from mainstream media impedes the progress of LGBTIQ rights movements. When the public is not exposed to diverse and accurate portrayals of lesbian lives, it becomes challenging to build empathy and support for lesbian rights and issues, making it harder to push for social and legal reforms that protect lesbian individuals.
42Besides, bisexual individuals, in general, face misconceptions from both the heterosexual and homosexual communities. Bisexual women, in particular, are sometimes accused of not being “truly” lesbian or straight, which reflects biphobic attitudes. This misunderstanding arises from the assumption that a person’s sexual orientation is solely defined by the gender of their current partner, erasing the validity of their bisexuality. Bisexual women may feel invisible within both the heterosexual and LGBTIQ communities. In heterosexual spaces, their relationships with people of the opposite gender can lead to erasure of their non-heterosexual identity. In LGBTIQ spaces, they may face skepticism or exclusion because of their relationships with people of the opposite gender, reinforcing the erasure of their bisexual identity (Serpe et al., 2020). This double erasure can lead to a sense of isolation and exclusion. When discussing issues related to sexual orientation, the experiences of bisexual women are often overlooked or misunderstood. In conversations about lesbian erasure, the complexity of bisexuality adds an additional layer of challenge. It requires promoting understanding and acceptance of diverse sexual orientations, acknowledging that individuals can be attracted to people of different genders, and rejecting the notion that relationships define one’s sexual identity. Bisexuality complicates discussions around lesbian erasure, making it crucial to address the complexities of sexual orientation within the LGBTIQ community.
43Biases within LGBTIQ spaces and organizations perpetuate lesbian erasure. Issues considered “mainstream” or “marketable”, often related to gay men or transgender rights, receive more attention, marginalizing lesbian voices and concerns. This biased approach creates an imbalance in the representation of different sexual orientations and gender identities (Nölke, 2018). In this scenario, the unique challenges faced by lesbians, in the intersection of gender inequalities and sexual orientation discrimination, might be sidelined or overlooked. As a result, the voices of lesbian individuals are drowned out, perpetuating their invisibility within the broader LGBTIQ discourse. By neglecting the specific needs of lesbians, the movement fails to address the concerns of a significant portion of its own community (Ferreira, 2014). This internal division weakens the collective power of the LGBTIQ movement, making it less effective in advocating for the rights and acceptance of all its members. This biased approach fosters a sense of exclusion and alienation among lesbians within LGBTIQ spaces. When their concerns are consistently overshadowed, lesbian individuals may feel disconnected from the very community that is supposed to provide support and understanding (Chanady, 2022; Valentine & Skelton, 2003). This isolation can lead to reduced engagement, limiting the potential for collaboration and shared advocacy efforts within the broader movement. Perpetuating lesbian erasure within LGBTIQ spaces and organizations sends a negative message to society at large. It implies that certain identities and orientations within the community are more valuable or deserving of attention than others.
44Efforts to be more inclusive and recognize diverse gender identities and sexual orientations sometimes inadvertently neglect the specific experiences and needs of lesbians. While inclusivity is crucial, it should not come at the cost of erasing lesbian identities (Beemyn & Eliason, 2016). Recognizing these complexities is vital for creating truly inclusive spaces within the LGBTIQ community. The intersection of sexism and homophobia results in unique challenges and discrimination, often the broader LGBTIQ activism does not recognize and address these intersecting forms of oppression (Ferreira, 2014). Addressing lesbian erasure requires acknowledging the unique challenges faced by lesbians and recognizing their contributions. This involves giving visibility to lesbian voices, highlighting the achievements of lesbian activists, and challenging biases and stereotypes within the broader LGBTIQ movement.
45Intersectionality provides a vital framework for understanding the erasure of lesbian identities within diverse social contexts. By acknowledging the intersections of race, class, gender, and sexuality, it is possible to work towards dismantling the systemic barriers that contribute to this erasure. Lesbians who belong to marginalized groups often experience compounded forms of erasure and discrimination, emphasizing the intersectionality of their experiences (Sumerau et al., 2020; Thomsen & Finley, 2019).
46In diverse social contexts, individuals are not defined solely by their sexual orientation. They carry diverse identities and affiliations that intersect and interact. For example, a lesbian woman of color not only faces heterosexism and homophobia but also racism. In predominantly white feminist or LGBTIQ spaces, racial discrimination can be particularly pronounced. Despite being part of a community advocating for acceptance and equality, lesbian women of color might face racism from peers, making it difficult to find genuine support (Patel, 2019). Their experiences might be invalidated or overlooked, and their voices might be silenced in these spaces due to racial prejudices. Being a lesbian woman of color requires navigating the complexities of identities. Balancing racial and sexual orientation identities can be emotionally and mentally exhausting. Lesbian women of color might feel pressured to conform to societal expectations, struggling to find acceptance within their own communities. Experiencing racism within the LGBTIQ community and homophobia within their racial or ethnic community can lead to profound emotional distress. The constant need to defend identities, explain experiences, and fight against stereotypes can have a significant impact on well-being.
47Economic factors significantly influence the experiences of lesbians. Working-class lesbians often face economic challenges that can limit their ability to access resources and establish support networks. Limited financial resources can translate into reduced access to quality education, healthcare, and mental health services. Economic instability can also result in unstable housing, making it difficult to find safe and accepting environments where they can openly assert their identity. Working-class lesbians might face limited access to education and employment opportunities, which can perpetuate a cycle of economic disadvantage (Frost et al., 2019). Discrimination in the workplace based on sexual orientation can lead to job insecurity, lower wages, and limited career advancement. Limited access to education and job opportunities can make it challenging to escape economic hardship, further hindering the ability to assert one’s identity openly. The intersection of economic status and sexual orientation creates a unique set of challenges. Working-class lesbians often experience compounded forms of discrimination, where economic vulnerability intersects with homophobia and heterosexism (Budge et al., 2016). In contrast, wealthier lesbians may have financial privilege that allows them to navigate societal biases more easily. Financial stability can provide access to better education, healthcare, legal support, and housing options. With economic resources, they have the means to access LGBTIQ-inclusive spaces and events that provide a sense of community and belonging. These spaces can offer vital support networks, mental health resources, and opportunities for activism and advocacy. Economic privilege can grant access to safe spaces where one’s identity is accepted and celebrated, fostering a sense of empowerment and confidence. The economic disparities between working-class and wealthier lesbians can have a significant impact on mental health and overall well-being. Economic factors deeply influence the experiences of lesbians, shaping their access to resources, acceptance, and support networks, and as such it is crucial to acknowledge and address economic disparities within the LGBTIQ community (Frost et al., 2019).
48Lesbians, like individuals of any sexual orientation, are profoundly influenced by their religious and cultural backgrounds. In many conservative or traditional communities, where religious beliefs and cultural norms are dominant, the intersection of these factors with sexual orientation can lead to complex and challenging experiences. Some religious doctrines explicitly condemn same-sex relationships, including lesbian relationships. These teachings can create a hostile environment for lesbians within religious communities, fostering stigmatization and ostracism. Lesbians might face religiously motivated discrimination, making it difficult to openly express their identity or form relationships within these communities. Cultural norms, often closely tied to religious beliefs, can also perpetuate prejudice against lesbians. Traditional expectations regarding marriage, family, and gender roles can clash with the existence of lesbian identities. Lesbians might find themselves at odds with cultural expectations, leading to rejection and isolation within their own communities (Wilkinson & Johnson, 2020).
49While the LGBTIQ community strives for equality and acceptance, it is not exempt from its own set of power dynamics and hierarchies. These dynamics can lead to different forms of erasure and discrimination, even within the community itself. One prominent example of these intersecting dynamics is the experiences of cisgender lesbians and transgender lesbians, each facing distinct challenges. Transgender lesbians might experience transphobia in addition to homophobia, making their struggles even more complex (Gailey & Brown, 2016). Transphobia can be pervasive even within the LGBTIQ community. Transgender lesbians may find themselves marginalized or erased due to both their gender identity and sexual orientation finding their experiences and identities underrepresented or misrepresented within both the broader society and the LGBTIQ community. The media, for instance, may not accurately portray the diversity of sexual orientations and gender identities within the transgender community. This lack of visibility can lead to further erasure, making it difficult for transgender lesbians to find relatable role models or community support (Nash, 2011). Acknowledging and understanding the intersecting power dynamics within the LGBTIQ community, especially concerning transgender lesbians, is essential for fostering a more inclusive and supportive community.
50Understanding lesbian erasure through an intersectional lens highlights the importance of amplifying diverse voices within the LGBTIQ community. By recognizing the unique challenges faced by lesbians with different intersecting identities, it becomes possible to address their specific needs and concerns. The fight against lesbian erasure is not isolated; it is linked to broader struggles against sexism, racism, classism, and other forms of oppression. Recognizing these intersections fosters solidarity among different social justice movements.
51The concept of “lesbian” has evolved from a simple label to a fluid and complex identity shaped by spatial, temporal, and power dynamics (Sumerau et al., 2020). No longer limited by strict definitions, lesbianism is now seen as a multifaceted identity that resists singular categorization, reflecting a variety of experiences across different contexts. Both internal and external power relations significantly shape these identities, with dynamics varying greatly among individuals and communities. The traditional, Western-focused perspective on lesbianism often marginalizes non-cisgender and non-Western experiences, underscoring the need for a more inclusive understanding that encompasses transgender, non-binary and intersex individuals. To fully grasp lesbian identities, one must explore how they are shaped, contested, and sometimes rendered invisible within various power structures (Browne & Ferreira, 2018).
52Affirming lesbian identities is not regressive but revolutionary. Validating lesbian experiences incorporating the fluidity of gender and sexual identities, challenges gender norms, disrupts heteronormativity, and dismantles patriarchal structures. Lesbians, existing outside traditional norms, provide a lens to deconstruct the gender binary and reject societal constraints. Affirming lesbian identities asserts agency, challenging power structures and stereotypes (Darwin, 2017). Lesbianism becomes truly revolutionary when it not only seeks access to power but also aims to transform the very systems of power. For example, while the visibility of lesbian politicians may signify progress, it often coexists with entrenched oppressive frameworks that continue to suppress queer activism. This dynamic reveals the tension between representation and systemic change. True transformative power lies in community-building and solidarity, acts of resistance that create alternative spaces and relationships in defiance of dominant societal structures (Forstie, 2020). Lesbianism becomes even more radical when it engages with broader struggles, such as those involving race, class, and other identities. In this way, lesbianism retains its revolutionary potential by challenging interconnected systems of oppression through solidarity, community, and intersectional politics (Murib, 2023).
53The tensions between TERF ideology and lesbian activism arise from differing perspectives on gender, identity, and inclusivity within feminist and LGBTIQ communities. Within the lesbian community, there are varying opinions on including transgender women, with some supporting TERF ideology and others embracing inclusivity, understanding the interconnectedness of gender identity and sexual orientation (Thomsen & Essig, 2022). Clube Safo, a non-TERF lesbian rights association in Portugal, is an example of an inclusive approach towards individuals of diverse gender identities and sexual orientations, emphasizing the importance of such activism in challenging heteronormativity, promoting gender equality, and fostering an inclusive society.1
54The erasure of lesbian individuals due to societal expectations is rooted in traditional beliefs about gender and sexuality, linked to biological essentialism, gender binary, and oppression (Greene, 2021). Lesbian erasure is deeply connected to patriarchal structures, where women challenging gender norms face dual discrimination based on both sexual orientation and gender nonconformity. By asserting autonomy over women’s bodies and desires, lesbianism defies the structures of male authority, making it a radical form of resistance.
55The complexity of lesbian experiences within patriarchal societies, emphasize the need for an intersectional feminist approach to address discrimination. However, it is noteworthy that even within feminist movements, lesbians have historically been marginalized due to heteronormativity and conservative views on sexuality (Podmore & Tremblay, 2015). The sexualization of lesbian relationships in mainstream media further distorts their reality contributing to the erasure of diversity in lesbian lives (Scanlon & Lewis, 2017).
56At the same time, the lesbian erasure within the LGBTIQ activism is particularly significant. It can be perceived by looking at how historical accounts and mainstream media often marginalize lesbian identities and experiences, leading to a lack of representation, visibility, and understanding (Browne et al., 2016). Biases within LGBTIQ spaces further perpetuate this erasure, highlighting the need for recognizing the unique challenges faced by lesbians and advocating for their visibility and acceptance within the broader movement. Efforts to be inclusive must consider the specific experiences of lesbians and address the intersecting forms of oppression they face due to both gender and sexual orientation discrimination. It is crucial to recognize and support diverse voices within the LGBTIQ community and highlight the interconnectedness of various social justice movements.
57Unpacking the ways in which the gender binary contributes to the erasure of lesbian identities is vital for fostering a society that celebrates diversity. Actively supporting, educating, and amplifying lesbian voices are key steps in resisting and deconstructing the erasure of lesbians. Promoting inclusive representation in media, advocating for comprehensive LGBTIQ education, and fostering a culture of respect and understanding can contribute to breaking free from the systems that sustain erasure. By addressing and dismantling lesbian erasure, society can create a more inclusive society, where every individual is recognized based on self-identification, overcoming the restraints of erasure and prejudice.