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Notes
For historical context on the 1966 Tower shooting, see a contemporary series of articles by Joan Neuberger et al., “Behind the Tower: New Histories of the UT Tower Shooting,” The Public History Seminar at UT-Austin (2016), http://behindthetower.org/histories.
[For the sake of anonymity, specific information on the research project will be added after peer review.] This study employs mixed-methods ethnography conducted in 2018–2019: semi-structured interviews with UT Austin faculty, students, and staff; focus groups with undergraduates and open-ended testimonials; and a representative survey of UT Austin undergrads (N=1,204). In addition, interviews were also conducted with faculty of St. Andrews University, a private institution in Austin which was not compelled to and did not allow guns on campus.
Katherine Bennett et al., “University Faculty Attitudes Toward Guns on Campus,” Journal of Criminal Justice Education 23, no. 3 (2012): 336–55; Bennett et al. 2011; Amy Thompson et al., “Faculty Perceptions and Practices Regarding Carrying Concealed Handguns on University Campuses,” Journal of Community Health 38 (2013), 366–73; Patricia P. Dahl et al., “Community College Faculty: Attitudes Toward Guns on Campus,” Community College Journal of Research and Practice 40, no. 8 (2016), 706–17.
Amy Thompson et al., “Student Perceptions and Practices Regarding Carrying Concealed Handguns on University Campuses,” Journal of American College Health 61, no. 5 (2013): 243–55; Jaclyn Schildkraut et al., “A tale of two universities: a comparison of college students’ attitudes about concealed carry on campus,” Security Journal 31, no. 2 (2018): 591–617.
Jeff Hosking, “Campus security director perceptions concerning the influence of concealed carry firearms on safety at Wyoming public community colleges: a phenomenological study,” PhD dissertation (Colorado State University, 2014); Aaron Bartula and Kendra Brown, “University and College Officials’ Perceptions of Open Carry on College Campus,” Justice Policy Journal 12, no. 2 (2015): 1–17.
James Price et al., “University Presidents’ Perceptions and Practice Regarding the Carrying of Concealed Handguns on College Campuses.” Journal of American College Health 62, no. 7 (2014): 461–69.
Dominic M. Beggan, “Texas Hold ‘Em: An Exploration of the Divergent Perspectives of Texas’s Campus Carry Law,” Community College Journal of Research and Practice 43, no. 1 (2017): 26–41; James A. Shepperd et al., “Gun attitudes on campus: United and divided by safety needs,” The Journal of Social Psychology 158, no. 5 (2018): 616–25; Joseph De Angelis et al., “Collective Security, Fear of Crime, and Support for Concealed Firearms on a University Campus in the Western United States,” Criminal Justice Review 42, no. 1 (2017): 77–94.
Ryan P. Patten et al., “Sweating Bullets: Female Attitudes Regarding Concealed Weapons and the Perception of Safety on College Campuses,” Race, Gender & Class 20, no. 3–4 (2013): 269–90.
Albion M. Butters, “Fear in the Classroom: Campus Carry at The University of Texas at Austin,” Texas Education Review 9, no. 1 (2021): 50–63; Hannah E. Jones and Sean M. Horan, “Guns on campus: campus carry and instructor–student communication,” Communication Education 68, no. 4 (2019): 417–37; Albion M. Butters, “Beyond Argumentum in Terrorem: The Contested Rhetoric of Campus Carry,” Journal of American Studies 55, no. 2 (2021): 262–73.
Shirley K. Drew, “Making Sense of Campus Carry at Pittsburg State University,” The Midwest Quarterly 59, no. 1 (2017): 81–98; Christopher M. Wolcott, “The Chilling Effect of Campus Carry: How the Kansas Campus Carry Statute Impermissibly Infringes Upon the Academic Freedom of Individual Professors and Faculty Members,” University of Kansas Law Review 65 (2017): 875–911.
Gun Free UT, “UT Faculty Council Passes New Resolutions on Campus Carry,” January 25, 2016, http://gunfreeut.org/ut-faculty-council-passes-new-resolutions-on-campus-carry/.
Campus Concealed Carry Implementation Task Force Report, September 1, 2016, https://utexas.app.box.com/v/campus-carry-report.
Interview, UT Austin administrator, April 26, 2018.
Gregory Fenves. “Transmittal letter to Chancellor McRaven, Office of the President,” The University of Texas at Austin, February 17, 2017, https://utexas.app.box.com/v/mcraven-cc-transmittal-letter.
Office of the President, The University of Texas at Austin, “UT Austin's Campus Carry Policies,” February 17, 2017, https://president.utexas.edu/messages-speeches-2016/campus-carry-policies.
Fenves, “Transmittal letter to Chancellor McRaven.”
Testimonial, UT Austin undergraduate, February 14, 2019.
Interview, UT Austin faculty, March 28, 2018.
Interview, UT Austin faculty, April 4, 2018; Interview, UT Austin faculty, April 24, 2018.
Interview, UT Austin faculty, April 27, 2018.
Interview, UT Austin faculty, April 24, 2018; see also Evan Smith, “A Conversation with Dan Patrick,” The Texas Tribune, June 4, 2015, https://youtu.be/tSvpgoXjoAo.
Sampo Ruoppila and Albion M. Butters, “Not a ‘Non-issue’: Perceptions and Realities of Campus Carry at The University of Texas at Austin,” Journal of American Studies 55, no. 2 (2021): 299–311.
Matthew Watkins, “Nobel Laureate Professor: I’m Banning Guns in My UT Classroom,” The Texas Tribune, January 25, 2016, https://www.texastribune.org/2016/01/25/nobel-laureate-professor-im-banning-guns-my-classr/.
Rachel Fernandez, “Graduate Student Reassigned After Syllabus Required Students with Concealed Weapons to Sit in a ‘Second Amendment Zone,’” The Daily Utah Chronicle, August 28, 2018, http://dailyutahchronicle.com/2018/08/26/graduate-assistant-removed-from-class-after-her-syllabus-required-students-with-concealed-weapons-to-sit-in-the-second-amendment-zone/.
Texas House of Representatives in 1997, 1999, 2009, 2013 (see https://house.texas.gov/); Texas Senate in 2009, 2011, 2013 (see https://senate.texas.gov/). See also Jeffrey A. Bouffard, Matt R. Nobles, William Wells and Michael R. Cavanaugh, “How Many More Guns?: Estimating the Effect of Allowing Licensed Concealed Handguns on a College Campus,” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 27, no. 2 (2012): 319.
Although the petition’s language was initially stronger, it was subsequently softened to get more faculty buy-in and signatures. Interview, UT Austin faculty, March 28, 2018.
On the activism of graduate students, see Gun Free UT, “1787 UT Graduate and Professional Students Oppose Guns in Classrooms,” December 1, 2015, http://gunfreeut.org/petitions/graduate-student-petition/.
Shaundra K. Lewis and Daniel Alejandro De Luna, “Symposium on ‘Texas Gun Law and the Future’: The Fatal Flaws in Texas’s Campus Carry Law,” Thurgood Marshall Law Review 41, no. 2 (2016): 139.
Gun Free UT, “Economics Professor Emeritus Daniel Hamermesh Withdraws From UT,” October 7, 2015, http://gunfreeut.org/economics-professor-emeritus-daniel-hamermesh-withdraws-from-ut/.
Matthew Watkins, “UT Architecture Dean Cites Campus Carry as a Reason for Departure,” The Texas Tribune, February 26, 2016, https://www.texastribune.org/2016/02/25/ut-architecture-dean-cites-campus-carry-reason-dep/.
Matthew Watkins, “Three UT Professors Sue to Block Campus Carry,” The Texas Tribune, July 6, 2016, https://www.texastribune.org/2016/07/06/3-ut-austin-professors-sue-state-over-campus-carry/.
Interview, UT Austin faculty, April 24, 2018.
Interview, UT Austin staff, April 16, 2018; Interview, UT Austin graduate student, April 25, 2018; Interview, UT Austin graduate, April 26, 2018.
Watkins, “Nobel Laureate Professor.”
Interview, UT Austin undergraduate, March 27, 2018.
Focus group (pro-Campus Carry), UT Austin undergraduates, April 19, 2018.
See also Patricia Somers and Nicholas Phelps, “Not Chilly Enough? Texas Campus Carry and Academic Freedom,” Journal of Academic Freedom 9 (2018): 1–15.
Interview, UT Austin undergraduate, April 4, 2018.
John R. P. French and Bertram Raven, “The Bases of Social Power,” in Studies in Social Power, ed. Dorwin P. Cartwright (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1959); Paul Schrodt, Paul L. Witt and Paul D. Turman, “Reconsidering the measurement of teacher power use in the college classroom,” Communication Education 56, no. 3 (2007): 308–332.
Focus group (pro-Campus Carry), UT Austin undergraduates, April 19, 2018.
Interview, UT Austin faculty, April 24, 2018.
Ibid.
William Rudy, The Campus and a Nation in Crisis: From the American Revolution to Vietnam (London and Cranbury, NJ: Associated University Presses, 1996), 206; Anthony Giddens, Beyond Left and Right: The Future of Radical Politics (Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 1994), 19; see also John Dewey, “Self-Realization as the Moral Ideal,” Philosophical Review 2, no. 6 (1893): 660.
Focus group (pro-Campus Carry), UT Austin undergraduates, April 19, 2018.
Gun Free UT, “Press Release: Gun-Free UT Hosting Teach-in on Campus Carry,” January 20, 2016, http://gunfreeut.org/teach-in-press-release/.
Interview, UT Austin undergraduate, March 27, 2018.
Interview, UT Austin faculty, April 27, 2018.
Ibid.
Firmin DeBrabander, Do Guns Make Us Free? Democracy and the Armed Society (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2015), 44. This reminds of a teaching from the Bodhicaryāvatāra, written by the Indian Buddhist monk Shāntideva in the 8th century, on the best way to protect oneself: although it is impossible to cover the entire earth with sheets of leather, a pair of shoes with good soles will suffice; similarly, while it is impossible to control everything that might happen in the world, by yoking the mind (i.e., overcoming self-clinging) one finds ultimate security. See Shāntideva, The Way of the Bodhisattva (Boston: Shambhala, 2006), 5.13–14.
According to Beth Titchiner, while violent epistemologies may be enacted on the basis of anxiety or fear, education has a vital role to play in shifting to non-violent ways of interacting with the world and each other; the example of meditation cited here would seem to fit with her suggestion of alternative pedagogical practices to achieve that. See Beth M. Titchiner, The Epistemology of Violence: Understanding the Root Causes of Violence in Schooling (Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019), 82, 256.
On historical examples of how inner revolution can effect a transformation of martial worldviews (e.g., the Mongol civilization), see Robert Thurman, Inner Revolution: Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Real Happiness (New York: Riverhead Books, 1999).
Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (New York: Vintage Books, 1977); Mark G. E. Kelly, The Political Philosophy of Michel Foucault (London, Routledge, 2009): 37–38.
French and Raven, “The Bases of Social Power.”
Schrodt et al., “Reconsidering the measurement of teacher power use in the college classroom”; 2007; Leslie F. Reid and Jalal Kawash, “Let’s talk about power: How teacher use of power shapes relationships and learning,” Papers on Postsecondary Learning and Teaching: Proceedings of the University of Calgary Conference on Learning and Teaching 2 (2017): 34–41.
Timothy Mottet, Ann B. Frymier and Steven A. Beebe, “Theorizing about instructional communication,” in Handbook of Instructional Communication: Rhetorical and Relational Perspectives, ed. Timothy P. Mottet, Virginia P. Richmond and James C. McCroskey (Boston: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon, 2006).
Carrie D. Kennedy-Lightsey and Scott A. Myers, “College Students’ Use of Behavioral Alteration Techniques as a Function of Aggressive Communication,” Communication Education 58, no. 1 (2009): 54–73. See also Tamara D. Golish, “Students’ use of compliance-gaining strategies with graduate teaching assistants: Examining the other end of the power spectrum,” Communication Quarterly 47, no. 1 (1999): 12–32.
Interview, St. Edward’s faculty, April 26, 2018; Interview, St. Edward’s faculty, April 27, 2018; Interview, UT Austin faculty, March 28, 2018.
Interview 1, UT Austin faculty, April 17, 2018.
See Jones and Horan, “Guns on campus,” 429. It should also be noted that, even though faculty may also legally carry on campus, for the purpose of discussion here the focus is on potentially armed students.
When Campus Carry is invoked as a form of legitimate power (see French and Raven), however, the antisocial classroom behavior can be on the part of the student, not the teacher; thus, it marks another type of inversion of the traditional power dynamic.
Foucault, Discipline and Punish, 201–2.
Focus group (anti-Campus Carry), UT Austin undergraduates, April 26, 2018.
Jeremy Bentham, The Panopticon Writings, ed. Miran Božovič (London and New York: Verso, 1995).
Michel Foucault, “The Eye of Power,” in Power/Knowledge, Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972–1977, ed. Colin Gordon (Brighton: Harvester, 1980), 147–65.
Joe Lewis, “The College Campus as Panopticon: How Security and Surveillance Are Undermining Free Inquiry,” in Policing the Campus: Academic Repression, Surveillance, and the Occupy Movement (New York: Peter Lang, 2013), 137. For an excellent overview, see Michael Gallagher, “Are Schools Panoptic?” Surveillance and Society 7, no. 3/4 (2010): 262–72.
Information Security Office, The University of Texas at Austin, https://security.utexas.edu/panopticon.
Bentham, The Panopticon Writings, 9.
Interview, UT Austin administrator, April 26, 2018.
Hosking, “Campus security director perceptions,” 59; Bartula and Brown, “University and College Officials’ Perceptions,” 12.
Inter alia, Interview, UT Austin faculty, April 23, 2018; Interview 2, UT Austin faculty, April 17, 2018.
Interview 2, UT Austin faculty, April 17, 2018.
Interview, UT Austin faculty, April 27, 2018.
Interview, St. Edward’s faculty, April 27, 2018. On this point, the professor clarified, “The people who are pushing for Campus Carry do not operate on academic campuses.”
For an overview of the battle over the idiom of the Ivory Tower, see Steven Shapin, “The Ivory Tower: the history of a figure of speech and its cultural uses,” The British Society for the History of Science 45, no. 1 (2012): 24–27.
Students for Concealed Carry, “Anti-Campus Carry Professors Take a Decidedly Unacademic Approach to Activism,” November 10, 2015, https://concealedcampus.org/2015/11/anti-campus-carry-professionals-take-a-decidedly-unacademic-approach-to-activism/.
Interview, St. Edward’s faculty, April 27, 2018.
Interview, UT Austin faculty, April 4, 2018.
Interview 1, UT Austin faculty, April 17, 2018.
Interview, UT Austin faculty, April 27, 2018.
Watkins, “Three UT professors sue to block campus carry.” On the question of Campus Carry as a threat to academic freedom, see Somers and Phelps, “Not Chilly Enough?”; Drew, “Making Sense of Campus Carry,” 90; Wolcott, “The Chilling Effect of Campus Carry,” 885–894; Minkah Makalani, “The Many Costs of Campus Carry,” The New Yorker, October 15, 2016, https://www.newyorker.com/culture/culture-desk/the-intellectual-costs-of-campus-carry.
Interview, UT Austin faculty, April 24, 2018.
Interview, UT Austin faculty, March 28, 2018.
Foucault, Discipline and Punish, 27–28.
Somers and Phelps, “Not Chilly Enough?” 8.
See, e.g., Richard Hofstadter, Anti-intellectualism in American Life (New York: Vintage Books, 1963); Susan Jacoby, The Age of American Unreason (New York: Pantheon Books, 2008); Matthew Motta, “The Dynamics and Political Implications of Anti-Intellectualism in the United States,” American Politics Research 46, no. 3: 465–98.
Edward Bulwer-Lytton, Richelieu (London: Saunders and Otley, 1839).
For a historical overview of domestic spy programs in U.S. universities, see David Price, “Uninvited Guests: A Short History of the CIA on Campus,” in The CIA on Campus: Essays on Academic Freedom and the National Security State, ed. Philip Zwerling (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 2011), 33 –60.
Forum, “A chilly climate on the campuses,” Chronicle of Higher Education, September 9, 2005, B7–13, cited in Henry A. Giroux, “Disabling the Future: Youth and the Politics of Disposability,” in Power, Pedagogy and Praxis: Social Justice in the Globalized Classroom, ed. Shannon A. Moore and Richard C. Mitchell (Rotterdam and Taipai: Sense Publishers, 2008), 64.
Since Campus Carry has been allowed on university campuses, it has resulted in zero shootings.
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