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Top of page
Notes
“Where Does the Phrase ‘Boots on the Ground’ Come from?” BBC, last modified September 30, 2014, https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-29413429.
“‘Boots on the Ground’ Is a Favorite Phrase in the ISIS Debate,” Courier & Press, last modified September 30, 2014, https://archive.courierpress.com/news/politics/elections/national/boots-on-the-ground-is-a-favorite-phrase-in-the-isis-debate-ep-641842939-324648721.html.
“Where Does the Phrase ‘Boots on the Ground’ Come from?”
Quoted in John K. Cooley, “US Rapid Strike Force: How to Get There First with the Most,” Christian Science Monitor, last modified April 11, 1980, https://www.csmonitor.com/1980/0411/041149.html.
George W. Bush, “Remarks on the New Oval Office Carpet and an Exchange with Reporters,” The American Presidency Project, last modified December 21, 2001, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-the-new-oval-office-carpet-and-exchange-with-reporters.
Josh Earnest, “Daily Press Briefing by the Press Secretary Josh Earnest 10/30/15,” The White House, last modified October 30, 2015, https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2015/10/30/daily-press-briefing-press-secretary-josh-earnest-103015.
Ibid.
Barack Obama, “Interview with Chuck Todd of NBC News ‘Meet the Press,’” The American Presidency Project, last modified September 7, 2014, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/interview-with-chuck-todd-nbc-news-meet-the-press-5; Barack Obama, “Address to the Nation on the Situation in Syria,” The American Presidency Project, last modified September 10, 2013, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/address-the-nation-the-situation-syria; Barack Obama, “The President’s Weekly Address,” The American Presidency Project, last modified September 7, 2013, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/the-presidents-weekly-address-336; Barack Obama, “Remarks on the Situation in Syria,” The American Presidency Project, last modified August 31, 2013, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-the-situation-syria-0; Barack Obama, “Remarks at National Defense University,” The American Presidency Project, last modified May 23, 2013, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-national-defense-university.
“NBC News Exclusive: Pres. Obama Tells Lester Holt He Sees ‘Disparities in How White, Black, Hispanic Suspects Are Treated,’” NBC News, last modified November 2, 2015, https://press.nbcnews.com/2015/11/02/nbc-news-exclusive-pres-obama-tells-lester-holt-he-sees-disparities-in-how-white-black-hispanic-suspects-are-treated/.
Carlo Galli, Amanda Minervini, and Adam Sitze, “On War and on the Enemy,” CR: The New Centennial Review 9, no. 2 (2009): 195-219, 196.
Quoted in Vincent J. Esposito, “War as a Continuation of Politics,” Military Review 11 (1955): 54-62, 56.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Robert L. Ivie, “Democratic Dissent and the Trick of Rhetorical Critique,” Cultural Studies ↔ Critical Methodologies 5, no. 3 (2005): 276-293, 278.
Robert L. Ivie, “Evil Enemy Versus Agonistic Other: Rhetorical Constructions of Terrorism,” The Review of Education, Pedagogy & Cultural Studies 25, no. 3 (2003): 181-200, 190.
Quoted in Jeremy Engels, “Friend or Foe?: Naming the Enemy,” Rhetoric and Public Affairs 12, no. 1 (2009): 37-64, 40.
Engels, “Friend or Foe?” 56.
Jeremy Engels, The Politics of Resentment: A Genealogy (University Park: Penn State University Press, 2015); Robert L. Ivie and Oscar Giner, Hunt the Devil. A Demonology of US War Culture (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2015); Steven E. Lobell, “Engaging the Enemy and the Lessons for the Obama Administration,” Political Science Quarterly 128, no. 2 (2013): 261-287; Jeremy Engels, Enemyship: Democracy and Counter-Revolution in the Early Republic (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2010); Engels, “Friend or Foe?”; Jason C. Flanagan, Imagining the Enemy: American Presidential War Rhetoric from Woodrow Wilson to George Walker Bush (Claremont: Regina, 2009); Galli, Minervini, and Sitze, “On War and on the Enemy”; Robert L. Ivie and Oscar Giner, “Hunting the Devil: Democracy’s Rhetorical Impulse to War,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 37, no. 4 (2007): 580-598; Richard Jackson, “Constructing Enemies: ‘Islamic Terrorism’ in Political and Academic Discourse,” Government and Opposition 42, no. 3 (2007): 394-426; Robert L. Ivie, “Savagery in Democracy’s Empire,” Third World Quarterly 26, no. 1 (2005): 55-65; Jason C. Flanagan, “Woodrow Wilson’s ‘Rhetorical Restructuring’: The Transformation of the American Self and the Construction of the German Enemy,” Rhetoric & Public Affairs 7, no. 2 (2004): 115-148; Ivie, “Evil Enemy Versus Agonistic Other;” Vilho Harle, The Enemy with a Thousand Faces (London: Praeger, 2000); Dale Spender, “The Politics of Naming,” in The Composition of Ourselves, ed. Marcia Curtis (Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt, 2000), 195-200; David Campbell, Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998); Yuen Foong Khong, Analogies at War: Korea, Munich, Dien Bien Phu and the Vietnam Decisions (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992); Keith Allan, and Kate Burridge, Euphemism and Dysphemism: Language Used as Shield and Weapon (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991); Robert W. Rieber, ed., The Psychology of War and Peace: The Image of the Enemy (New York: New Press, 1991); Robert L. Ivie, “Images of Savagery in American Justifications for War,” Communication Monographs 47 (1980): 279-290.
Annita Lazar and Michelle M. Lazar, “The Discourse of the New World Order: ‘Out-Casting’ the Double Face of Threat,” Discourse and Society 15, no. 2/3 (2004): 223-242; Mary E. Stuckey, “Competing Foreign Policy Visions: Rhetorical Hybrids after the Cold War,” Western Journal of Communication 59 (1995): 214-227.
Ofer Zur, “The Love of Hating: The Psychology of Enmity,” History of European Ideas 13, no. 4 (1991): 345-369; Heikki Luostarinen, “Finnish Russophobia: The Story of an Enemy Image,” Journal of Peace Research 26, no. 2 (1989): 123-137; Riitta Wahlstrom, “On the Psychological Basis of Peace Education: Enemy Image and Development of Moral Judgement,” Presentation at the Eleventh Conference of the International Peace Research Association, April 13, 1986, Brighton, United Kingdom.
Galli, Minervini, and Sitze, “On War and on the Enemy”; Ivie, “Evil Enemy Versus Agonistic Other”; James A. Aho, This Thing of Darkness: A Sociology of the Enemy (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1994); Vilho Harle, “On the Concepts of the ‘Other’ and the ‘Enemy,’” History of European Ideas 19, no. 1-3 (1994): 27-34; Ira Chernus, “War and the Enemy in the Thought of Mircea Eliade,” History of European Ideas 13, no. 4 (1991): 335-344.
Engels, “Friend or Foe?”; Galli, Minervini, and Sitze, “On War and on the Enemy”; Ivie and Giner, “Hunting the Devil.”
Jason A. Edwards, “Defining the Enemy for the Post-Cold War World: Bill Clinton’s Foreign Policy Discourse in Somalia and Haiti,” International Journal of Communication 2 (2008): 830-847; Ivie, “Savagery in Democracy’s Empire”; John R. Butler, “Somalia and the Imperial Savage: Continuities in the Rhetoric of War,” Western Journal of Communication 66 (2002): 1-24; Ivie, “Images of Savagery in American Justifications for War.”
Ivie and Giner, Hunt the Devil; Ivie and Giner, “Hunting the Devil”; Michael Rogin, Ronald Reagan, the Movie and Other Episodes of Political Demonology (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987).
Annita Lazar and Michelle M. Lazar, “Enforcing Justice, Justifying Force. America’s Justification of Violence in the New World Order,” in Discourse, War and Terrorism, eds. Adam Hodges and Chad Nilep (Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2007), 45-65; Jonathan Anderson, “‘Evil’ Revisited,” Administration and Society 26, no. 37 (2006): 737-739; Nick Haslam, “Dehumanization: An Integrative Review,” Personality and Social Psychology Review 10, no. 3 (2006): 252-264; Judith Butler, Precarious Life: The Powers of Mourning and Violence (London: Verso, 2004); Kimberly C. Elliott, “Subverting the Rhetorical Construction of Enemies through Worldwide Enfoldment,” Women and Language 27, no. 2 (2004): 98-103.
Kenneth Burke, “The Rhetorical Situation,” in Communication: Ethical and Moral Issues, ed. Lee Thayer (New York: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1973), 263-275; Kenneth Burke, Dramatism and Development (Barre: Clark University Press, 1972), 28; Kenneth Burke, A Rhetoric of Motives (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969), 19-29.
Lazar and Lazar, “The Discourse of the New World Order”; Stuckey, “Competing Foreign Policy Visions”; Thomas A. Hollihan, “The Public Controversy over the Panama Canal Treaties: An Analysis of American Foreign Policy Rhetoric,” Western Journal of Speech Communication 50, no. 4 (1986): 368-387.
Engels, “Friend or Foe?”; Ivie and Giner, “Hunting the Devil”; Lazar and Lazar, “Enforcing Justice, Justifying Force; Ivie, “Democratic Dissent and the Trick of Rhetorical Critique”; Ivie, “Savagery in Democracy’s Empire”; Lazar and Lazar, “The Discourse of the New World Order”; Ivie, “Evil Enemy Versus Agonistic Other”; Stuckey, “Competing Foreign Policy Visions.”
Stuckey, “Competing Foreign Policy Visions.”
Lazar and Lazar, “The Discourse of the New World Order,” 239-240.
Burke, A Rhetoric of Motives, 20.
Ibid., 21.
Ibid., 46.
Ibid., 22.
Ibid., 46.
Burke, “The Rhetorical Situation,” 268.
Ibid., 268-269.
Burke, A Rhetoric of Motives, 21.
Lazar and Lazar, “The Discourse of the New World Order,” 229.
Ibid., 230.
Ibid., 227-238.
George H. W. Bush, “Address to the Nation Announcing United States Military Action in Panama,” The American Presidency Project, last modified December 20, 1989, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/address-the-nation-announcing-united-states-military-action-panama.
William J. Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Haiti,” The American Presidency Project, last modified September 15, 1994, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/address-the-nation-haiti.
George W. Bush, “Address to the Nation on Iraq,” The American Presidency Project, last modified March 17, 2003, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/address-the-nation-iraq; Bush, “Address to the Nation Announcing United States Military Action in Panama.”
Barack Obama, “Remarks at the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York,” The American Presidency Project, last modified December 1, 2009, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-the-united-states-military-academy-west-point-new-york-1; Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Haiti.”
George H. W. Bush, “Address to the Nation on the Situation in Somalia,” The American Presidency Project, last modified December 4, 1992, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/address-the-nation-the-situation-somalia.
Obama, “Remarks at the United States Military Academy.”
William J. Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Somalia,” The American Presidency Project, last modified October 7, 1993, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/address-the-nation-somalia.
Obama, “Remarks at the United States Military Academy.”
Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Haiti.”
Bush, “Address to the Nation on Iraq.”
William J. Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Implementation of the Peace Agreement in Bosnia-Herzegovina,” The American Presidency Project, last modified November 27, 1995, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/address-the-nation-implementation-the-peace-agreement-bosnia-herzegovina.
Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Haiti.”
Obama, “Remarks at the United States Military Academy.”
Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Implementation of the Peace Agreement in Bosnia-Herzegovina.”
Obama, “Remarks at the United States Military Academy.”
Burke, A Rhetoric of Motives, 22.
Ibid.
Ibid., 20.
Lazar and Lazar, “The Discourse of the New World Order,” 229.
Ibid., 230.
William J. Clinton, “The President’s News Conference,” The American Presidency Project, last modified June 17, 1993, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/the-presidents-news-conference-1223; George H. W. Bush, “Radio Address to the Nation on the National Day of Prayer,” The American Presidency Project, last modified February 2, 1991, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/radio-address-the-nation-the-national-day-prayer.
George H. W. Bush, “Interview with Gerd Helbig of ZDF, German Television,” The American Presidency Project, last modified May 24, 1990, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/interview-with-gerd-helbig-zdf-german-television.
Clinton, “The President’s News Conference.”
George W. Bush, “Address Before a Joint Session of the Congress on the United States Response to the Terrorist Attacks of September 11,” The American Presidency Project, last modified September 20, 2001, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/address-before-joint-session-the-congress-the-united-states-response-the-terrorist-attacks.
George W. Bush, “Remarks by the National Security Advisor Condoleezza Rice to the Conservative Political Action Conference,” The American Presidency Project, last modified February 1, 2002, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-the-national-security-advisor-condoleezza-rice-the-conservative-political-action.
Barack Obama, “Interview with Bill O’Reilly of Fox News - Part 1 of 4,” The American Presidency Project, last modified September 4, 2008, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/interview-with-bill-oreilly-fox-news-part-1-4.
Donald J. Trump, “Remarks Introducing Governor Mike Pence as the 2016 Republican Vice Presidential Nominee in New York City,” The American Presidency Project, last modified July 16, 2016, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-introducing-governor-mike-pence-the-2016-republican-vice-presidential-nominee-new.
Bush, “Address to the Nation on Iraq”; Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Haiti”; Bush, “Address to the Nation Announcing United States Military Action in Panama.”
Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Somalia”; Bush, “Address to the Nation on the Situation in Somalia.”
Donald J. Trump, “Address to the Nation on United States Strategy in Afghanistan and South Asia from Joint Base Myer-Henderson Hall, Virginia,” The American Presidency Project, last modified August 21, 2017, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/address-the-nation-united-states-strategy-afghanistan-and-south-asia-from-joint-base-myer; Bush, “Address to the Nation on Iraq;” Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Haiti.”
George W. Bush, “Address to the Nation Announcing Strikes Against Al Qaida Training Camps and Taliban Military Installations in Afghanistan,” The American Presidency Project, last modified October 7, 2001, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/address-the-nation-announcing-strikes-against-al-qaida-training-camps-and-taliban-military; Bush, “Address to the Nation on the Situation in Somalia.”
Trump, “Address to the Nation”; Bush, “Address to the Nation on Iraq;” Bush, “Address to the Nation Announcing Strikes.”
Trump, “Address to the Nation”; Bush, “Address to the Nation Announcing Strikes.”
Trump, “Address to the Nation”; Bush, “Address to the Nation on Iraq.”
Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Haiti.”
Bush, “Address to the Nation on Iraq.”
Obama, “Remarks at the United States Military Academy.”
Trump, “Address to the Nation.”
Obama, “Remarks at the United States Military Academy.”
Trump, “Address to the Nation.”
Obama, “Remarks at the United States Military Academy”; Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Implementation of the Peace Agreement in Bosnia-Herzegovina”; Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Haiti”; Bush, “Address to the Nation Announcing United States Military Action in Panama.”
Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Implementation of the Peace Agreement in Bosnia-Herzegovina”; Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Somalia”; Bush, “Address to the Nation on the Situation in Somalia”; George H. W. Bush, “Address to the Nation Announcing Allied Military Ground Action in the Persian Gulf,” The American Presidency Project, last modified February 23, 1991, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/address-the-nation-announcing-allied-military-ground-action-the-persian-gulf; Bush, “Address to the Nation Announcing United States Military Action in Panama.”
Trump, “Address to the Nation”; Bush, “Address to the Nation on Iraq”; Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Implementation of the Peace Agreement in Bosnia-Herzegovina”; Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Haiti”; Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Somalia”; Bush, “Address to the Nation on the Situation in Somalia.”
Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Implementation of the Peace Agreement in Bosnia-Herzegovina”; Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Somalia”; Bush, “Address to the Nation on the Situation in Somalia”; Bush, “Address to the Nation Announcing Allied Military Ground Action in the Persian Gulf”; Bush, “Address to the Nation Announcing United States Military Action in Panama.”
Trump, “Address to the Nation”; Bush, “Address to the Nation on Iraq;” Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Haiti.”
Trump, “Address to the Nation”; Bush, “Address to the Nation on Iraq”; Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Implementation of the Peace Agreement in Bosnia-Herzegovina”; Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Haiti;” Bush, “Address to the Nation on the Situation in Somalia”; Bush, “Address to the Nation Announcing Allied Military Ground Action in the Persian Gulf.”
Bush, “Address to the Nation Announcing Allied Military Ground Action in the Persian Gulf.”
Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Implementation of the Peace Agreement in Bosnia-Herzegovina.”
Bush, “Address to the Nation on Iraq.”
Obama, “Remarks at the United States Military Academy.”
Bush, “Address to the Nation Announcing United States Military Action in Panama.”
Bush, “Address to the Nation on the Situation in Somalia.”
Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Haiti.”
Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Implementation of the Peace Agreement in Bosnia-Herzegovina.”
Trump, “Address to the Nation.”
Bush, “Address to the Nation on Iraq.”
Obama, “Remarks at the United States Military Academy.”
Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Implementation of the Peace Agreement in Bosnia-Herzegovina.”
Obama, “Remarks at the United States Military Academy.”
Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Haiti.”
Ibid.
Obama, “Remarks at the United States Military Academy.”
Bush, “Address to the Nation on Iraq.”
Bush, “Address to the Nation Announcing United States Military Action in Panama.”
Bush, “Address to the Nation Announcing Strikes.”
Obama, “Remarks at the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York.”
Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Somalia.”
Bush, “Address to the Nation Announcing United States Military Action in Panama.”
Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Haiti.”
Bush, “Address to the Nation on Iraq.”
Obama, “Remarks at the United States Military Academy.”
Trump, “Address to the Nation.”
Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Haiti.”
Bush, “Address to the Nation on the Situation in Somalia.”
Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Haiti.”
Obama, “Remarks at the United States Military Academy”; Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Haiti.”
Obama, “Remarks at the United States Military Academy.”
Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Implementation of the Peace Agreement in Bosnia-Herzegovina.”
Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Haiti.”
Obama, “Remarks at the United States Military Academy.”
Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Implementation of the Peace Agreement in Bosnia-Herzegovina.”
Bush, “Address to the Nation on Iraq.”
Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Haiti.”
Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Somalia.”
Bush, “Address to the Nation on Iraq.”
Kenneth Burke, “Definition of Man,” The Hudson Review 16, no. 4 (1963-1964): 491-514.
Bush, “Address to the Nation on Iraq.”
Bush, “Address to the Nation Announcing Strikes.”
Trump, “Address to the Nation.”
Bush, “Address to the Nation Announcing Strikes.”
Obama, “Remarks at the United States Military Academy.”
Bush, “Address to the Nation Announcing United States Military Action in Panama.”
Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Haiti.”
Bush, “Address to the Nation on Iraq.”
Obama, “Remarks at the United States Military Academy.”
Trump, “Address to the Nation.”
Obama, “Remarks at the United States Military Academy.”
Burke, A Rhetoric of Motives, 55.
Obama, “Remarks at the United States Military Academy.”
Ibid.
Bush, “Address to the Nation Announcing Strikes.”
Ibid.
Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Implementation of the Peace Agreement in Bosnia-Herzegovina.”
Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Somalia.”
Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Haiti.”
Clinton, “Address to the Nation on Implementation of the Peace Agreement in Bosnia-Herzegovina.”
Obama, “Remarks at the United States Military Academy.”
Trump, “Address to the Nation.”
Ibid.
Bush, “Address to the Nation Announcing United States Military Action in Panama.”
Bush, “Address to the Nation Announcing Strikes.”
Obama, “Remarks at the United States Military Academy.”
Ibid.
Burke, Dramatism and Development, 28.
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