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José Martí, in the Name of Cuba

A Look at the Trajectory of the Apostle of Independence
Salim Lamrani
Cet article est une traduction de :
José Martí, au nom de Cuba [fr]
Autre(s) traduction(s) de cet article :
José Martí, en nombre de Cuba [es]

Résumés

La vie brève et intense de José Martí, dont l’engagement en faveur de l’indépendance de la dernière colonie espagnole du continent américain a été total, a marqué l’histoire de Cuba. Fédérateur des forces patriotiques, Martí a consacré son existence à l’avènement d’une République libre et souveraine, sacrifiant sa vie personnelle au nom de l’intérêt supérieur de la nation et de l’affranchissement de tous les Cubains. Constructeur de l’édifice national, il est considéré comme l’Apôtre de l’émancipation qui, dès les premiers instants, mit en garde son peuple contre le danger de la domination du pays par les Etats-Unis.

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Texte intégral

Introduction

1The brief and intense life of José Martí, whose commitment to the independence of the last Spanish colony on the American continent was constant and total, has made an indelible mark on Cuban history. A federator of patriotic forces, Martí dedicated his life to the advent of a free and sovereign republic, sacrificing his personal life in the name of the best interests of the nation and the emancipation of all Cubans. Builder of the national edifice, he is considered the Apostle of Emancipation who, from the outset, warned his people against the danger of the domination of the country by the United States.

2How can we look at the personal and above all political trajectory of the most universal of Cubans? What were the events that guided his commitment to the freedom of his homeland? What were his main accomplishments?

3José Martí’s youth was marked by the cruelty of slavery which still raged in Cuba and which led him to his political commitment in favor of the definitive autonomy of his island and all its inhabitants. By opposing the exploitation of his land by the colonial metropolis, Martí suffered in his flesh the violence of repression and was forced into exile in Spain for daring to question the colonial order. His stays in Mexico and Guatemala developed his Latin Americanist streak and his political doctrine in favor of a continental union to preserve the identity, culture and independence of the Hispanic American nations. Following the failure of the First Cuban War of Independence, he committed himself body and soul to the “Little War”, refusing to abandon to their fate the fighters who had rejected the Pact of Zanjón, which sealed a peace without sovereignty. After a brief stay in Venezuela, Martí settled permanently in New York where he worked to complete the union of all the patriotic forces in order to launch the Second War of Independence which was to allow Cuba to finally conquer its freedom.

1. The youth of José Martí

  • 1 José Martí, “Fermín Valdés Domínguez”, Patria, 3 February 1894, in Centro de Estudios Martianos. ht (...)

4José Julián Martí Pérez was born on January 28, 1853 in Havana from the union of Mariano de los Santos Martí y Navarro and Leonor Antonia de la Concepción Micaela Pérez y Cabrera, both Spaniards, originally from Valencia and Tenerife. He was the oldest and the only boy in a family of eight children. At the age of 7, he entered the San Anacleto school where he met Fermín Valdés Domínguez, who became a close friend, and who remained “faithful at all times to the homeland”.1

5In 1862, his father, a justice official, was appointed itinerant judge in the province of Matanzas, in the central part of the island. Thus, from the age of 9, the young José discovered with terror the reality of slavery and the miserable conditions to which a large part of the population was subjected. He was marked for life by the slave trade and would make it one of his main fights. He later wrote about it:

  • 2 José Martí, “El plato de lentejas”, 5 January 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 3, 1975, (...)

In vain, the famous Cubans demanded an end to slavery, which the Spaniards never asked for. Spain, deaf, was the only nation in the Christian world that kept men in slavery. […] And the Cubans went to war. From the first day of freedom they broke the chains of their serfs and converted, at the risk of their lives, the Spanish indignity into a people of free men. The revolution brought the black race back to humanity, it made the terrible fact disappear. […] The abolition of slavery [by the Guáimaro Assembly on April 10, 1869] is the purest and most transcendent fact of the Cuban revolution.2

  • 3 José Martí, “Carta al Sr. Enrique Trujillo”, 1891, in Centro de Estudios Martianos. http://www.jose (...)

6Returning to Havana in 1865, José Martí joined an educational institution where he made a decisive encounter: Rafael María de Mendive, then Director of the school, favorable to the independence of Cuba, who became his spiritual father and his master. He kept a deep memory of him: “How could I in a few lines express all the goodness […] of this lover of beauty […] who has never written anything but truths from his heart or about the misfortunes of his homeland? […] How he united, with the affection which emanated from his person, those […] who loved the country like him”. A year later, Martí attended the secondary school in Calle Obispo in Havana and lived with his master Mendive.3

2. Political commitment

7On October 10, 1868, the First Cuban War of Independence broke out. Carlos Manuel de Céspedes freed his slaves and launched the Cry of Yara during the uprising in La Demajagua, near Manzanillo. The young Martí followed the events with passion thanks to the information provided by Mendive, a fervent patriot, and published a sonnet to the glory of the mambises entitled ¡10 de octubre!.4 For Martí, the abolition of slavery decreed by Céspedes was Cuba’s first act as a nation.5

  • 6 José Martí, “El Diablo Cojuelo”, 19 January 1869 in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 1 (...)
  • 7 José Martí, “Abdala”, La Patria Libre, 23 January 1869 in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crít (...)

8On January 19, 1869, at the age of 16, Martí launched with his childhood friend Fermín Valdés Domínguez the newspaper El Diablo Cojuelo in which he criticized the colonial system and the repression of individual freedoms: “You made a comment or evoked an episode of the Revolution? In prison! […] There are so many people in prison” that Havana had become a penitentiary.6 The same month, Martí launched his newspaper La Patria Libre, only one edition of which appeared. There he published his poem Abdala in which he sealed his fate: “Oh, how sweet death is when one daringly sacrifices oneself to defend the homeland!”7

  • 8 José Martí, “El Presidio político en Cuba”, 1871, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, (...)

9On October 21, 1869, José Martí was arrested by the colonial authorities following the discovery of a letter, signed by Fermín Valdés and himself, in which they described their comrade Carlos de Castro y Castro as an apostate, because the latter was enlisted in the Corps of Volunteers in the Service of the Crown. Young Martí was declared an enemy of Spain. Five months later, on March 4, 1870, Martí faced the War Council and claimed authorship of the letter. Refusing to abandon his friend, Fermín Valdés declared to the authorities that he was the sole perpetrator. The military court decided to sentence Martí, barely 17, to six years of hard labor, and Valdés to six months in prison. The ordeal in Havana prison, where he was subjected to forced labor for eleven hours a day, marked him forever: “Infinite pain, for the pain of prison is the harshest, the most devastating pain, that which kills the intelligence, and dries up the soul, and leaves traces in it that will never be erased”.8

3. Exile in Spain

  • 9 José Martí, “A Rafael María de Mendive”, 15 January 1871, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición C (...)

10In August 1870, the colonial authorities commuted the sentence of José Martí, whose health did not withstand the abuse. He was transferred to the Isle of Pines in October 1870 and was placed under house arrest. On January 15, 1871, Martí was deported to Spain, far from his family. The young patriot was deeply affected by this and he shared his torment with his master Rafael Mendive: “I have suffered a lot, but I am convinced that I have known how to suffer”.9

  • 10 José Martí, “Carta a Manuel Mercado”, 12 September 1892, in Centro de Estudios Martianos. http://ww (...)

11In the Spanish capital, Martí continued to campaign for Cuban independence and refused to fall into hatred of the Spaniard. Rather, he was convinced that “the only strength and the only truth in life is love. Patriotism is nothing other than love, friendship is nothing other than love”. José Martí thus expressed his attachment to his land and to his people.10

  • 11 José Martí, “Guatemala”, 1878, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2001, Havana, Centr (...)
  • 12 José Martí, Cartas desde Nueva York, México, Siglo XXI, 1980, p. 213.

12He enrolled in the Faculty of Law of the Central University of Madrid. Lucid, he recognized that the salvation of the human being depended on the culture: “To be cultivated is to be free. Knowing how to read means knowing how to walk. Knowing how to write means knowing how to rise”.11 Everything went through education according to the Cuban: “The mother of decency, the sap of freedom, the maintenance of the Republic and the remedy for its ills is, above all, the propagation of culture”.12 A people could only be founded through knowledge.

  • 13 José Martí, “Castillo”, La Soberanía Nacional, 24 March 1871, op. cit., p. 50-51.

13In 1871, Martí published in Madrid Castillo, in homage to the revolutionary brigadier Nicolas del Castillo, political prisoner of 75 years, condemned to ten years of forced labor. He denounced the colonial system and the oppression suffered by the Cuban people. “The ignored pains are often the most terrible pains”, he told Spanish public opinion to draw their attention to the Cuban drama. Regarding the treatment of the venerable old man, the young Martí expressed his amazement: “I knew that we were being punished in the prison. I knew we were being treated with cruelty, but I couldn’t believe, neither that cruelty would reach such refinement, nor that punishment would reach iniquity”.13

  • 14 José Martí, “El Presidio político en Cuba”, 1871, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, (...)

14Later, that same year, Martí published an essay entitled The Political Prison in Cuba in which he denounced the plight of his compatriots locked up for claiming their right to self-determination. Spain had “anathematized the petition of rights” which it demanded for itself but refused for the Cubans. It oppressed the desire for independence and “sanctified as representatives of peace and morality the war of extermination and the forgetting of the heart”. Yesterday Spain yearned for the widest freedom for itself and today it applauded “unconditional war to stifle the demand for freedom of others”. Martí invited Madrid not to underestimate the determination of the Cubans and cited the example of the fire in the town of Bayamo started by its own inhabitants on January 12, 1869: “The Bayamese women set fire to the house where their parents’ frozen bodies lay, where their childhood smiled, where their youth blossomed and where their beautiful nature was reproduced”.14 The Cuban patriot urged the Spaniards to be aware of the fate of their American brothers:

  • 15 Ibid., p. 69, 71.

In the name of true integrity and honor, the integrity of the bonds of protection and love that you should never have broken; in the name of good, Supreme God; in the name of justice, supreme truth; I demand compassion from you for those who suffer in prison […]. Honor can be tainted. Justice can be sold. Everything can be ripped off. But the notion of good floats over everything and never wrecks. […] Save it, for there is still time to be that nation which, even when it has lost all its feelings, in the end retains the feeling of pain and dignity.15

  • 16 José Martí, “El día 27 de noviembre de 1871”, 1871, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica (...)

15In 1872, a piece of writing also appeared entitled “November 27, 1871”, a tribute to the memory of the eight medical students, arbitrarily shot by the Spanish army on that date. Three days earlier, on November 24, 1871, Alonso Álvarez de la Campa y Gamba, aged 16, Anacleto Bermúdez y González, aged 20, Juan Pascual Rodríguez y Pérez, aged 21, Carlos Augusto de la Torre y Madrigal, 20, Ángel Laborde y Perera, 17, Carlos Verdugo y Martínez, 17, Eladio González Toledo, 20, and José de Marcos y Medina, aged 20, were unjustly accused, along with thirty-five other comrades, of having desecrated the grave of the Spanish journalist Gonzalo Castañón, former director of the daily La Voz de Cuba. Arrested by the Spanish governor Dionisio López Roberts, who wanted to set an example and send a message of firmness and terror in the midst of the war of independence, they were sentenced to death after a summary trial and executed, all in the space of a few hours. The other students escaped death, but the colonial courts were ruthless towards them: eleven of them were sentenced to six years in prison, twenty of them to four years in prison and four of them to six months in prison. Martí, revolted by the cruelty of the Spanish authorities and the sentence out of all proportion to the purported crime, denounced colonial arbitrariness and bowed before the memory of the innocent: “Every day that passes, we love our brothers who have died more, and we do not want their remains to rest in peace, because they live in the eminent turmoil of glory”.16

16On February 11, 1873, faced with the abdication of King Amédée of Savoy, the Senate and Congress were constituted as Parliament and the Spanish Republic was proclaimed. José Martí then wrote a text entitled The Spanish Republic Facing the Cuban Revolution and sent it to all members of the new government. The young patriot reaffirmed in it the legitimate right of Cuba – in the midst of the war against Spain – to be independent. He denounced the unjust and obsolete colonial system. According to him, the will which constrained another will should not be respected and the Spanish Republic could not reject the unanimous will of a people. The right of insurrection against tyranny was inalienable for a “people humiliated, constrained, oppressed, impoverished, sold”. Any other outcome than full sovereignty was illusory because the insurgents did not yield, and an honorable republican could not deny a people a right which he himself had made use of. Cuba was writing “with blood its irrevocable resolution […]; over the corpses of her children, she [stood up] to say that she [wished] firmly for her independence”. For Martí, the Republic had to be consistent with its founding principles. If it rejected conquest and oppression, it could not accept the status quo in Cuba. If the Spanish Republic was based on universal suffrage and the will of the people, it had to be the same in Cuba:

  • 17 José Martí, “La República Española ante la Revolución Cubana”, 1871, in José Martí, Obras completas(...)

When does a people express their desires more firmly than when they rise up in arms to obtain them? […] Cuba claims its independence to which it is entitled for the life it knows that it possesses, for the energetic constancy of its children, for the richness of its territory, for its natural independence, and, above all, […] because it is the firm and unanimous will of the Cuban people. Cuba wants to be free […]. By the law of its irrevocable will, by the law of historical necessity, it must obtain its independence.17

17José Martí’s state of health deteriorated as a result of the consequences of forced labor. Suffering from a tumor produced by the chains he had to wear in prison, he underwent several operations. He convalesced in Zaragoza with his friend Fermín Valdés Domínguez and took the opportunity to obtain between 1872 and 1874 his license in Civil and Canon Law and his license in Letters and Philosophy, before leaving Spain.18

4. Stays in Mexico and Guatemala

  • 19 José Martí, “1875-1876 México”, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 1983, Havana, Cent (...)
  • 20 José Martí, “1875-1876 México”, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 1985, Havana, Cent (...)

18In January 1875, José Martí decided to go to Veracruz, Mexico, via Paris and England, to join his family, whom he had not seen since January 1871. In Mexico, Martí entered the universe of journalism and between 1875 and 1877 published numerous articles in the journal Revista Universal under the pseudonyms Anáhuac and Orestes. His favorite themes remained the independence of Cuba and Latin America, as well as the expansionism of the United States. He also tackled various subjects related to Mexican national politics, international relations and was also interested in art and literature.19 Sensitive to the working-class and peasant condition, he collaborated with the newspaper El Socialista, the press organ of the Gran Círculo Obrero de México.20

  • 21 José Martí, “Sociedad Alarcón”, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2001, Havana, Cent (...)

19Subsequently, he wrote in various newspapers and magazines across America and achieved continental notoriety (La Nación of Buenos Aires, La América of New York, El Partido Liberal of México, La Opinión Pública of Montevideo and La República of Honduras). Martí was recognized by the Aztec intellectual world, which included him in its circles. He founded the Alarcón Society in the company of eminent Mexican figures and became a member of the Hidalgo Society at the behest of its president.21

  • 22 José Martí, “A Manuel A. Mercado”, 1 January 1877, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, (...)
  • 23 José Martí, “A Manuel A. Mercado”, 22 January 1877, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica (...)
  • 24 José Martí, “Ismaelillo”, 1882, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de (...)

20In 1877, in the Aztec capital, he married Carmen Zayas-Bazán e Hidalgo, a young Cuban, for whom he felt a deep love, and who, a year later, gave him a son named José Francisco, their only child. In a letter to his friend Manuel Mercado, he wrote: “I am leaving with Carmen, which means leaving full of strength”.22 In another letter dated the same month, he told him of the place his wife occupied in his life: “I do not hide from myself that to undertake and imagine, to encourage with faith and to work brilliantly, Carmen's presence is essential to me. It exerts a gentle strengthening influence on my mind”.23 Martí titled his first verse book Ismaelillo and dedicated it to his son. In it he wrote: “I have faith in human improvement, in the life to come, in the usefulness of virtue and in you”.24

  • 25 José Martí, “A Nicolás Domínguez Cowan”, 1 January 1877, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Cr (...)

21But the overthrow of the government of José María Iglesias by General Porfirio Díaz forced Martí to leave Mexico to go illegally to Havana under the name of Julián Pérez - his middle name and first name - in January 1877. His stay in the Cuban capital lasted at barely a few months. 25

  • 26 José Martí, “A Manuel A. Mercado”, 19 April 1877, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, (...)

22Faced with difficulties, in April 1877, Martí decided to settle in Guatemala. Thanks to several letters of recommendation provided by José Mariano Domínguez, father of his friend Fermín Valdés, he obtained a chair of literature and philosophy at the National University. The Cuban patriot defended the Guatemalan people in the face of his detractors: “I don’t like to hear foreigners – those who are truly foreigners, by their acerbic spirit of aversion – say that our ailing America lacks ardent intelligences while it’s quite the opposite. Here, as in Mexico, everyone has talent”. He also taught voluntarily at the Central American Girls’ Academy.26

  • 27 José Martí, “A Joaquín Macal”, 11 April 1877, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2001 (...)
  • 28 José Martí, “Patria y Libertad”, 11 April 1877, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 20 (...)

23In April 1877, the government of Guatemala asked Martí to carry out a study on the national legal system and the article Los Códigos Nuevos then appeared.27 During his stay in the country, José Martí was deeply moved by the plight of the indigenous peoples, whom he called the “mother race” and who made up the majority of the inhabitants of the country. Shocked by the exploitation of which they were victims and by their living conditions, he took their defense and published the poem Patria y Libertad in which he denounced the discrimination against them: “With his broken human spirit, the Indian of the fields has nothing left but his shoulders to carry the burdens of the Church, to pay tribute to the caciques, to buy his clothes from the Spaniard”. For Martí, America could not exist without the natives. Tying the fate of the Indians to that of the continent, he declared that “until the Indian moves forward, America will not move forward”.28

24Martí noted that the history of the American continent remained unknown. In February 1878, he published a work entitled Guatemala with the aim of making known the reality of the country, its traditions and its customs. “Guatemala is a hospitable land, rich and frank”, he noted in his plea. “It doesn’t reject the good stranger: it calls and loves him”, he added. It was true that the Spanish domination had somewhat shattered the character of the Guatemalan. “But he will resuscitate”, warns Martí, because “dignity is like the sponge: it is oppressed but it always retains its tensile force. Dignity never dies”. The Cuban patriot then relied on the history of the continent to recall the cost of divisions:

  • 29 José Martí, “Guatemala”, 1878, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2001, Havana, Centr (...)

Pizarro conquered Peru when Atahualpa was at war with Huáscar. Cortés defeated Cuauhtémoc because Xicotencatl helped him in his enterprise; Alvarado entered Guatemala because the Quichés besieged the Zutujiles. Since disunity was our death, to what vulgar mind or what petty heart would still have us say that our life depends on unity?29

25José Martí would work for the union necessary to obtain the independence of his homeland.

5. Commitment to the “Little War”

  • 30 José Martí, “A Manuel Mercado”, 6 July 1878, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2001, (...)

26The signing of the Pact of Zanjón in 1878 between infighting Cuban rebels and Spain ended the Ten Years War and resulted in a peace without freedom or independence. Martí decided to go to Cuba in order to try to unite the patriotic forces around the emancipatory project and to put an end to the fragmentation. In a letter of July 6, 1878 to his Mexican friend Manuel Mercado, he told him of his objective: “Do I tell you that I keep thinking about my unhappy people […]? I am going to Cuba to work for my people and to strengthen myself for the struggle”.30

  • 31 José Martí, “Fragmentos del discurso pronunciado en la inauguración del Liceo de Regla”, 1 February (...)
  • 32 José Martí, “Brindis en el banquete celebrado en honor a Adolfo Márquez Sterling, en los salones al (...)
  • 33 José Martí, “Apuntes para un discurso”, 1879, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2002 (...)

27Back in Cuba, the Cuban patriot devoted all his efforts to the emancipation of his people. In his first speech on February 8, 1879 on the occasion of the inauguration of a high school in Regla, he indicated the way forward: “The bravest have the right to carry the flag into battle […]. The union of all Cubans to fight for freedom” is an urgent necessity.31 On April 21, 1879, he urged his compatriots “to keep dignity, freedom and decency alive”.32 Cuba had to defend “the cult of great ideas, the love of great facts, this passion for great daring” and gain its independence. Martí got in touch with the patriot Juan Gualberto Gómez and tried to reorganize the movement for the emancipation of Cuba, in what would be called “The Little War” from 1879 to 1880.33

  • 34 José Martí, “A Leandro J. de Viniegra”, 11 October 1879, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Cr (...)
  • 35 José Martí, “A Miguel F. Viondi”, 13 October 1879, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, (...)

28But the colonial authorities again arrested Martí, who was accused of conspiring with other supporters of Cuban sovereignty. He was again deported to Spain, to Santander, in September 1879, and forcibly separated from his family.34 In a letter to his friend Miguel Viondi, he told him of his sadness and loneliness.35

  • 36 José Martí, “A Miguel F. Viondi”, 8 January 1880, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, (...)

29Soon after, Martí managed to take refuge in France and went into exile to the United States where he would live for 14 years. On January 3, 1880, he landed in New York and forged links with Cuban independence leaders. He was appointed, unanimously by its members, spokesperson for the Cuban Revolutionary Committee on January 9 and took charge of federating the Main patriotic groups. His daily life was marked by various material difficulties and he found himself obliged to seek the help of his friend Viondi to pay for his wife’s trip from Cuba.36

30On January 24, 1880, Martí gave his first speech on U.S. territory, at Steck Hall. He carried out a lucid analysis of the First War of Independence, called for the union of all revolutionary forces and laid the foundations for a new collective action which would lead to the definitive emancipation of the island from the Spanish colonial yoke. He urged his compatriots to unite, to reject personal rivalries that divided patriots and hindered victory, to revile racist prejudices on an island where slavery was still not abolished, and to support the revolutionaries who rebelled against the Pact of Zanjón by launching “the Little War” on August 24, 1879, under the leadership of Calixto García. “We are not resigned to living without a homeland”, he proclaimed. The Cubans had to win their independence and prepare to pay the price for it: “Freedom is very expensive and it is necessary either to resign ourselves to living without it, or to decide to buy it at its price”. He concluded his remarks with a call for mobilization:

  • 37 José Martí, “Asuntos cubanos. Lectura en Steck Hall, New York”, 24 January 1880, in José Martí, Obr (...)

Let the children [of revolutionaries of the First War of Independence] prepare to fearlessly repeat the feats of these courageous and magnificent men who have nourished themselves with roots. […] Great rights cannot be bought with tears, but with blood […]. What a bleak future for our land if we abandon the brave struggling to their efforts, and we do not come together to help them.37

  • 38 José Martí, “El Comité Revolucionario de Nueva York”, 28 April 1880, in José Martí, Obras completas(...)
  • 39 José Martí, “Circular”, 28 April 1880, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2002, Havan (...)
  • 40 José Martí, “Al General Antonio Maceo”, 20 July 1882, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Críti (...)

31On March 26, 1880, Martí became Acting President of the Cuban Revolutionary Committee in New York for three months, following the departure of General Calixto García’s expedition to Cuba.38 A month later, he appealed to all Cubans of goodwill to come to the aid of the patriots who were fighting against Spain: “To abandon those who die, and then enjoy the well-being of their death, is not the work of worthy men. Rights are won with sacrifices”.39 Martí organized a fundraiser to provide material assistance to the patriots who had rejected the Pact of Zanjón and taken the Baraguá oath under the aegis of the military leader Antonio Maceo, in which they pledged to continue the struggle until they achieved independence. Regarding Maceo, Martí wrote the following: “I do not know a braver soldier or a more tenacious Cuban”.40

  • 41 José Martí, “A Ramón Emeterio Betances”, May 1880, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, (...)

32Martí also appealed to the patriots of Latin America. In May 1880, he wrote to Ramón Emeterio Betances, the independence leader of Puerto Rico who was then in Paris, asking him to unite the Latin American patriots present in the French capital to come to the aid of the Cuban revolutionaries and to obtain support of national public opinion: “I know that for you there is no sea between Cuba and Puerto Rico and that you feel in your chest the blows of the weapons which wound ours”.41

  • 42 José Martí, “A Emilio Núñez”, 13 October 1880, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 200 (...)

33Faced with a lack of support within the island, the Little War ended in failure on the battlefield. Martí, in a letter to Colonel Emilio Núñez Rodríguez, one of the last to lay down his arms, urged him not to sacrifice his life and those of his men unnecessarily: “Moved by anger at the criminal loneliness in which the country abandons its defenders, and out of love and respect for your generous sacrifice, I was preparing to beg you to spare your lives”. Due to internal divisions among the leaders, the armed enterprise was once again a failure. Martí regretted that “the leaders of the Revolution [have] not found in the last two years a way to work together […]. Our honor, our very cause, demands that we abandon the field of armed struggle”, he concluded with regret.42

6. A brief stay in Venezuela and the final settlement in New York

  • 43 José Martí, “A Fausto Teodoro de Aldrey”, 22 March 1881, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Cr (...)
  • 44 José Martí, “A Fausto Teodoro de Aldrey”, 27 July 1881, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crí (...)
  • 45 José Martí, “Revista Venezolana”, 1 July 1881, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Hav (...)

34In January 1881 Martí left New York for Venezuela. In the homeland of Bolívar, “this noble land, mother of all American lands and of ours”, he affirmed his Latin Americanist and internationalist fiber.43 He taught in various colleges and collaborated with the newspaper La Opinión Nacional of Caracas. The Cuban expressed his admiration for Simon Bolívar’s homeland: “I am a child of America and I am in its debt. [Venezuela] is the birthplace of America. […] May Venezuela allow me to serve it: I am its son”.44 To this end, he founded the Revista Venezolana, the aim of which was to promote the culture of the country and the continent.45

  • 46 José Martí, “Cecilio Acosta”, 15 July 1881, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana (...)
  • 47 José Martí, “A Fausto Teodoro de Aldrey”, 27 July 1881, op. cit.

35In July 1881, following the death of the Venezuelan thinker Cecilio Acosta, Martí wrote a testimony in his memory: “To study and imitate his virtues is the only homage to great natures and worthy of them”.46 However, the latter being hated by the President of Venezuela Guzmán Blanco, the Cuban patriot was declared persona non grata and was forced, a month later, to return to New York.47

  • 48 José Martí, “Cartas de Nueva York”, 1881-1882, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Hav (...)
  • 49 José Martí, “Carta de Nueva York expresamente escrita para La Opinión Nacional”, 4 February 1882, i (...)

36Once settled in the United States, Martí did not abandon Venezuela, however, and continued his collaboration with La Opinión Nacional, of which he became the correspondent for almost two years. The profession of journalist thus allowed him to become an informed connoisseur of American culture and society. His numerous political, societal and cultural columns covered national and international news.48 Martí was moved by the exploitation and the misery suffered by the working class. In a February 1882 chronicle, he recounted the plight of the common people: “They do the work of a man and earn a meager salary, much lower than that of a man. This bitterness afflicts good hearts, which cannot find a way to react to this misery which is eating away at body and soul”.49

37From July 1882, he began his collaboration with the Argentinian daily La Nación. His interest in the faith of the working class of the United States did not falter and he recounted the popular protests in favor of a better standard of living. His sensitivity forced him to choose the camp of the striking workers and he expressed his delight when they organized a coalition to defend their rights: “What a joy to see them suddenly ennobled by the exercising of their dignity!”. The causes of their rebellion were known:

  • 50 José Martí, “Carta de Nueva York”, 4 February 1882, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica (...)

The prosperous capitalist exploits the poor worker at a low price […]. For the capitalist, a few more pennies on food items are just a number on the annual balance sheet. For the worker, these pennies generate [...] the immediate deprivation of essential items. The worker asks for a salary that allows him to dress and eat. The capitalist refuses it.50

  • 51 José Martí, “Carta de Nueva York”, 29 March 1883, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, (...)

38On March 29, 1883, Martí paid homage to Karl Marx in an article in La Nación: “Karl Marx is dead [March 14, 1883]. Because he chose the camp of the weak, he deserves to be honored”. The author of The Capital had “not simply been a titanic catalyst for the anger of European workers, but a visionary, deeply lucid about the reasons for human misery and the fate of men, devoured by the thirst to do good”.51

  • 52 José Martí, “A Bartolomé Vitre Vedia”, 19 December 1882, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Cr (...)
  • 53 José Martí, “A Amalia Martí Pérez”, 28 February 1883, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Críti (...)

39Separated from his wife and son, whom he had not seen for more than two years,52 Martí also had to take on the responsibility of providing for his parents who remained in Cuba. In a letter to his sister Amalia, he told her of his financial difficulties: “I am distressed that mum has to live in a foreign house [with her daughter]. From April, she will receive 20 or 25 gold dollars each month. This month, I can only send her 10”.53

  • 54 José Martí, “Cartas de Martí, Estados Unidos de América”, 1 September 1883, in José Martí, Obras co (...)

40His personal situation and the sensitivity that animated him did not leave him indifferent to the sufferings of others. He was particularly moved by the plight of poor New York City children, abandoned to their fate, in an article dated September 1883: “Poor children die by the hundreds during the summer. Cholera infantum takes their lives like ogres in fairy tales […]. They crawl like worms and sigh. I say this is a public crime, and the duty to alleviate misery is a duty of the state!”.54

  • 55 José Martí, “La revolución del trabajo”, 25 March 1886, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crí (...)

41While dedicating most of his time to organizing Cuban emigration to the United States, Martí continued to be interested in national affairs in his country of residence. The big workers’ strikes across the country led him, of course, to side with the workers. In several columns published in La Nación, the journalist recounted the insurrection of the exploited against the oppression of big business as well as the battle for the eight-hour day. “Between the capitalists and the workers”, it was necessary to choose a side.55 “The drivers’ strike was fair”, he wrote. He expressed his solidarity with the strikers:

  • 56 Ibid., p. 97.

You have to be a bad soul not to feel affection for these poor soldiers of life, standing day and night on the platform of their horse-drawn carriage, whipped by snow, drenched by rain, assailed by the storm, splashed by mud. The people of the city owe the power to move from one place to another, in the warmth, to feed their families, to their determination and resistance.56

42Martí recounted the great strike in the coal sector and was indignant at the fate of the workers. “There would be fewer strikes or they would last shorter if those who favor them by their injustice did not aggravate the reasons with their haughty air and their exhibition of force which aggravate the injury of those who are too tired to see the arbitrary force exercised on them”, he wrote in one of his chronicles. He expressed his admiration for those who fought for their dignity and expressed their solidarity with their fellow victims of exploitation:

  • 57 José Martí, “Correspondencia particular para El Partido Liberal”, 2 February 1887, in José Martí, O (...)

The workers are likely to be defeated in the various strikes they are currently carrying out. But, defeated or victorious, the importance of these strikes lies in the fact that forty thousand men, forty thousand heads of families are willing to give up their work for a whole month in the middle of winter, to help a group of coal carriers or dockers to obtain a salary which at least allows them to pay for the daily bread, roof and coal. [..] Those who wish to speak wisely about the condition of the workers must come down from their pedestal and know their misery closely.57

  • 58 José Martí, “Cartas de Martí”, 17 August 1887, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Hav (...)

43Martí was also marked by the fate reserved for the black populations of the United States, where an implacable segregation was rife and where daily crimes went unpunished. In an article, he spoke of the oppression of which they were victims: “The blacks are sad because there is not a single day which does not rise on the corpse of one of them, assassinated by the whites of the South. because of the bonds of friendship or affection with white women”.58

  • 59 José Martí, “A Manuel Mercado”, between 9 February and August 1884, in José Martí, Obras completas, (...)

44Although Martí was sensitive to the miseries which afflicted the most vulnerable, he did not lose sight of his great objective, which was the independence of Cuba. He expressed his fears and doubts to his Mexican friend Manuel Mercado: “I’m afraid to leave life without having had the opportunity to do my duty”.59 In a letter to General Máximo Gómez, he told him of the danger posed by the annexationist tendency among the landowners of the island. Indeed, part of the local elite fervently wanted the island’s annexation to the United States, which has become Cuba’s Main trading partner:

  • 60 José Martí, “Al General Máximo Gómez”, 20 July 1882, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crític (...)

There is another greater danger, arguably greater than all the other dangers. In Cuba there has always been a large group of cautious men, proud enough to abhor Spanish rule, but timid enough not to risk their personal well-being by fighting it. This class of men, aided by all who would like to enjoy the benefits of freedom without paying the bloody price, vehemently favor the annexation of Cuba to the United States.60

  • 61 José Martí, “Cartas de Martí”, 15 January 1885, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Ha (...)

45Martí was all the more concerned as Spain had signed a modus vivendi with the United States in January 1884, which potentially made the island completely dependent on its Northern Neighbor on a commercial level. The agreement linked “so absolutely the existence of the island to the United States” that it would lead to the loss “for Spanish America of the island which should have been its bastion”, protested the Cuban patriot.61

  • 62 José Martí, “A Manuel Mercado”, 13 November 1884, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, (...)
  • 63 José Martí, “A Carlos Farini”, 10 October 1884, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Ha (...)

46In May 1884, the Republic of Uruguay solicited José Martí for the post of interim Consul in New York, his “only means of subsistence”.62 The latter accepted the proposal, which he was however forced to give up in October 1884. In his resignation letter, he explained the reasons, linked to his fight for the independence of his homeland: “Today, hopes of my country are reborn and I am starting to publicly encourage them. I would show a very bad affection for Uruguay if I exposed it, with my signaled participation in the affairs of my country, to an unpleasant altercation with the Nation which governs us, and which is your friend”.63

  • 64 José Martí, “Al General Máximo Gómez”, 20 October 1884, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crí (...)

47Indeed, that same month of October 1884, in New York, Martí met for the first time with Máximo Gómez and Antonio Maceo, principal figures of the independence movement, to give new impetus to the emancipatory project. The meeting was heated because of a difference in principle. For Martí, it was inconceivable to found a nation which would be based solely on military power and which would be undemocratic. He expressed his “determination not to contribute the least in the world [...] to put in place on [his] land a regime of personal despotism, which will be more shameful and fatal than the political despotism it currently supports and more serious and difficult to uproot, because he would come excused by some virtues, embellished by the idea embodied in it and legitimized by the triumph”. Martí asked an essential question to explain his rejection of military power: “What guarantees can we have that public freedoms, the only object worthy of launching a country into the fight, will be better respected tomorrow?”. The patriots were to be “the heroic and modest servants of an idea” and not the caudillos who would impose their will on the people. Martí did not question General Gómez’s disinterestedness, but preferred to warn him against personal power: “You don’t found a people like you command a camp, General”. Martí opposed a new armed enterprise, defended by Gómez and Maceo, and was advised to postpone the outbreak of the new war against Spain. In his view, this could not be achieved without careful preparation and a public declaration of the objectives sought, and it was impossible to ignore the necessary political and ideological work.64

  • 65 José Martí, “Reforma esencial en el programa de las universidades americanas. Estudio de las lengua (...)
  • 66 José Martí, “Maestros ambulantes, espíritu de la instrucción que proponemos, manera en que puede re (...)

48Martí had in fact always taken a great interest in the spiritual development of his fellow citizens. According to him, “education has an inevitable duty towards man – and not to fulfill it is a crime: that duty is to conform him to his time, without deviating from the grandiose and final human tendency”. The people were to live “in analogy with the universe and with their time”.65 In an article published in 1884, he insisted on the importance of knowledge and moral values for personal development: “Happiness exists on earth and is achieved with the prudent exercise of reason, the knowledge of the harmony of the universe and the constant practice of generosity”. For him, “to be good is the only way to be happy” and “to be cultivated is the only way to be free”. It was necessary to disseminate “the tenderness which is so necessary and which does so much good for men”.66

  • 67 José Martí, “A Manuel Mercado”, 22 April 1886, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Hav (...)

49José Martí was facing great financial difficulties. In a letter to Manuel Mercado, he told him of his dismay and the “terror of soul” in which he lived on a daily basis. Affected by his health problems, he was in a state of physical and moral exhaustion: “I draw from myself a wild energy without tiring myself, but I note that I am reaching the end of my rope”. He even mentioned the possibility of becoming a book publisher in order to support himself. His life in New York was a nightmare: “I feel like I have been eaten away from the inside by a poison that turns my soul […]. It’s a slow death”. Why was he staying in this U.S. megalopolis then? To serve his homeland: “Everything binds me to New York: the consequences of our country’s political errors, the proximity of my land, which ignores everything about me, and for which I am dying”.67

7. The union of patriotic forces

  • 68 José Martí, “Cartas de Martí”, 10 October 1887, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Ha (...)
  • 69 José Martí, “A Juan Fernández Ruz”, 20 October 1887, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crític (...)
  • 70 José Martí, “Al General Máximo Gómez”, 16 December 1887, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Cr (...)

50On October 10, 1887, on the occasion of the commemoration of the uprising of 1868, José Martí reappeared in public life after a long silence and delivered a speech to the Cuban emigrants. “We must watch over the homeland without violating its destiny with our passions. We must prepare freedom so that it is worthy of it”, he reminded his compatriots.68 For Martí, the Spanish government had repeatedly demonstrated its inability to govern Cuba according to the culture and the needs of its inhabitants.69 This meeting gave rise to the creation of an Executive Commission, chaired by Martí, whose objective was to unite all the emigres in favor of the independence of the island.70

  • 71 José Martí, “¿Queremos a Cuba”, The Manufacturer, 16 March 1889, in José Martí, Obras Completas, vo (...)
  • 72 José Martí, “Vindicación de Cuba”, 25 March 1889, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 1, 1975, H (...)

51Martí was thus fully involved in the project of the emancipation of Cuba. On March 21, 1889, he responded to an article in the Philadelphia newspaper, The Manufacturer, which discussed the possible purchase of Cuba and its possible annexation by the United States, while expressing racist contempt for the Cuban people.71 Martí firmly rejected the project: “No Cuban worthy of the name will humiliate himself to the point of being received as a moral plague […] among a people who deny his capacity, insult his virtue and despise his character […]. Those who fought in the war […] do not want Cuba to be annexed to the United States”. In addition, Martí underlined that the Cubans had a difference of principle about the model of society. They did not believe in the “excessive individualism [nor] the worship of wealth” which cemented American society and rejected “the immoderate appetite for power [and] the acquisition or triumphs contrary to goodness and justice”. Martí recalled that the Cubans were not “that people of destitute vagabonds or immoral pygmies” described in the newspaper. Then he concluded: “We suffered impatiently under tyranny, we fought like men, and sometimes like giants to be free […]. We deserve, in our time of misfortune, the respect of those who have not helped us”.72

  • 73 José Martí, “A Gonzalo de Quesada”, 29 October 1889, in José Martí, Nuestra América 15, 1977, Carac (...)

52On October 29, 1889, Martí expressed his fears to Gonzalo de Quesada about a possible annexation of Cuba. One had to “know what [was] the position of this greedy neighbor”.73 In another letter of December 14, 1889, the Cuban patriot renewed his concern and denounced Washington’s claims to seize the island:

  • 74 José Martí, “A Gonzalo de Quesada”, 14 December 1889, in José Martí, Nuestra América 15, 1977, Cara (...)

On our land, Gonzalo, there is another plan darker than what we have known so far: it is the iniquitous enterprise of forcing the island, of throwing it into war, in order to have the pretext to intervene and, with the credit of the mediator and guarantor, to seize it. There is no worse cowardice in the annals of free peoples.74

  • 75 José Martí, “Carta a Serafín Bello”, 16 November 1889, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 1, 19 (...)

53In another letter of November 16, 1889 to the patriot Serafín Bello, Martí once again expressed his concern. He was suspicious of the U.S. ambition to capture the island and regretted that some Latin American nations saw this possibility as a lesser evil. They did not understand that “their peace of mind and even their true independence was in danger if they left the key to the other America in these foreign hands”. Since Washington “dared not set its eyes on Mexico or Canada, it set [them] on the Pacific Islands and the West Indies, on us”. The convergence between the “island annexationists and the Yankee annexationists” had to be prevented at all costs.75

  • 76 José Martí, “Discurso pronunciado ante la Sociedad Literaria Hispanoaméricana (‘Madre América’)”, 1 (...)
  • 77 José Martí, “Tres héroes”, July 1889, in José Martí, Nuestra América 15, 1977, Caracas, Biblioteca (...)

54On December 19, 1889, Martí delivered his famous “Mother America” speech in Washington to representatives of 18 Latin American governments. It was a fiery plea for the liberation of America’s last homeland from the yoke of the oppressor Spain.76 In the same year, Martí founded the monthly magazine La Edad de Oro, for children, aiming to introduce the history of the continent and its liberators to new generations and to recall the need for a Latin American union. A great admirer of Simón Bolívar, founder of the Pan-American idea, in the first issue he mentioned the figure of the Liberator, symbol of continental unity: “It is said that a traveler once arrived in Caracas at nightfall, and even before shaking off the dust from the road, he did not ask where to eat or sleep, but where the statue of Bolívar was […]. This traveler did well, because all Americans must love Bolívar like a father”.77

  • 78 José Martí, “Carta a Emilio Núñez”, 15 May 1890, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 1, 1975, Ha (...)

55Martí made great efforts to unite Cubans around the cause of independence. In a May 1890 letter to Emilio Núñez, he recalled that the duty of Cubans emigrating was to provide all the assistance necessary for the island’s separatists in the inevitable war against Spain. He urged his compatriots to respect all opinions in order to unite as many people as possible around the common goal. Unfair and inadequate exclusions were to be absolutely prohibited. “We are trying with the united forces of all honest men to raise and prepare our own army”, he concluded. The opposite would be “an unforgivable fault in the face of our history”.78

  • 79 José Martí, “Carta a Juan Bonilla”, 8 August 1890, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 1, 1975, (...)

56Martí was aware that the enterprise would be difficult. It was necessary to face a Spanish empire, certainly decadent, but still solid, to defeat the Cuban annexationists ideologically and to face the hostility of the United States which wanted to seize the island. “There have never been worse conditions for entering a war of independence, nor a greater necessity to wage war”, he wrote in a letter of August 1890. Nevertheless, duty called for taking awareness of this reality and the preparation of the project of armed struggle cemented in the union of all the patriotic forces.79

  • 80 José Martí, “Nuestra América”, 30 January 1891, in José Martí, Nuestra América 15, 1977, Caracas, B (...)
  • 81 José Martí, “Las conferencias internacional y monetaria”, 28 September 1889, in José Martí, Nuestra (...)
  • 82 José Martí, “Al Ministro de la Argentina”, 17 October 1891, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume (...)

57That same year, in 1890, José Martí published his masterful essay Nuestra América, an ode to continental union.80 Argentina and Paraguay then decided to appoint him Consul in New York, thus expressing their gratitude to the Cuban and seeing in him the best defender of the interests of Latin America. Uruguay also made him its official representative to the International Monetary Commission.81 This exceptional fact – a person simultaneously representing three nations of which he was not a national – illustrated Martí’s prestige in Latin America: his internationalist vocation made him the most universal ambassador of the continent of his time. He held this post until 1892, when he decided to devote himself entirely to the revolutionary enterprise of Cuban independence, which forced him to relinquish his post.82

  • 83 José Martí, “Carta a Manuel Mercado”, 18 May 1895, in Granma, 18 May 2010. http://www.granma.cu/gra (...)
  • 84 Juan Marinello, Obras Martianas, Caracas, Biblioteca Ayacucho, 1987, p. 154.

58Having lived there for many years, Martí had become a keen observer of American society: “I lived within the monster. I know the guts”.83 He pointed out the violence and inequalities that affected the most vulnerable and underlined “two truths useful to our America: the crude, unequal and decadent character of the United States, and the existence, among them, continues, of all violence, discords, immoralities and disorders of which the Latin American peoples are accused”.84 For all these reasons, it was imperative to prevent any annexation of Cuba.

8. The preparation of the armed uprising

59On November 26, 1891, José Martí delivered a speech at the Cuban High School in Tampa and laid the foundations for the future sovereign Cuba: “I want the first law of our Republic to be the cult of Cubans for the full dignity of man”. The human person was to be sacred and his physical integrity inviolable: “Every man must feel on his cheek the slap received by any man”. Solidarity and compassion for the suffering of others should be the basis of society. Independence was to be “a revolution of justice and reality, for the recognition and frank practice of true freedoms”. These freedoms should concern all Cubans, without exception, and in particular black populations. The Spaniards living in Cuba would be at home: “We are fighting for human freedom in Cuba, and there are many Spaniards who love freedom”. It was necessary to learn the lessons of the past and eliminate the vices which were responsible for the defeat. The fight for independence had to be fought “with all and for the good of all”:

  • 85 José Martí, “Discurso en el Liceo Cubano de Tampa”, 26 November 1891, in Centro de Estudios Martian (...)

Either the Republic is based on the whole character of each of its children, the habit of working with its hands and thinking for itself, the exercise of self-integrity and respect […], in short, the passion for dignity of man, or the Republic will not be worth a tear of our women nor a single drop of blood of our brave.85

  • 86 José Martí, “Bases del Partido Revolucionario Cubano”, January 1892, in José Martí, Obras Completas (...)
  • 87 José Martí, “Discurso en Cayo Hueso”, 25 December 1891, in Centro de Estudios Martianos. http://www (...)

60A month later, in January 1892, José Martí founded the Cuban Revolutionary Party (PRC) in Key West, where there was a large Cuban community made up mostly of workers working in the tobacco industry. The objective was to unite all the pro-independence forces under a common structure and to carry out the struggle for the national sovereignty of Cuba. Martí was appointed Secretary General of the PRC. The slogan was the union of all patriotic societies and the stated goal was the full sovereignty of Cuba and Puerto Rico. The first article recalled that “the Cuban Revolutionary Party is formed to obtain, with the united efforts of all men of good will, the absolute independence of the island of Cuba, and to promote and help that of Puerto Rico”. The aim was to unleash a “brief war, designed to ensure the happiness of the inhabitants of the island in peace and work”.86 The objective of the PRC was to found in Cuba “a nation capable of ensuring the happiness of its children and of fulfilling, in the historical life of the continent, the difficult duties which its geographical situation indicates to it”. Cuba was to become “the asylum of the outcasts”.87

  • 88 José Martí, “Nuestras ideas”, 14 March 1892, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 1, 1975, Havana (...)

61In March 1892, Martí launched the first issue of the review Patria, the official organ of the PRC, which would be published until 1898 with a total of 522 issues. In the first editorial entitled “Our Ideas”, Martí recalled the urgent need for the union of good and useful men of all origins and social ascents who had at heart the sacrifice of emancipation. The war against Spanish colonialism was inescapable and was “the inevitable consequence of the continuous denial, concealed or shameless, of the conditions necessary for the happiness of a people who refuse to be corrupt and become disordered in misery”. Martí called for altruism because “dangerous dignity” was preferable to “useless life”, republican peace being the ultimate goal. Then, he concluded with the following statement: “Patriotism is a holy duty when we fight for the country to become a home where people will live happier”. Martí reiterated the Cubans’ lack of hatred towards the Spaniards. The war was not waged against children born in Spain, but against its greed and incapacity.88

  • 89 José Martí, “La política”, 19 March 1892, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 1, 1975, Havana, E (...)
  • 90 José Martí, “La política”, 3 April 1892, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 1, 1975, Havana, Ed (...)

62In Patria, Marti recalled the noble goal of politics, which was the art of making men happy. Its aim was to “save, for virtue and happiness, a group of human beings whom oppression has driven to vice and hunger has forced into crime”.89 Its mission was to put an end to the injustices suffered by the inhabitants and to allow the most vulnerable to live in dignity. The war would be waged against the foreign government which stifled and corrupted “the forces of the country”, which denied human rights and stirred up “hatred between sons and fathers” and against “the colonial constitution which would prevent the peaceful practice of independence in the free homeland”.90

  • 91 José Martí, “A los Presidentes de los Clubs del Partido Revolucionario Cubano”, 13 May 1892, in Jos (...)
  • 92 José Martí, “A José Dolores Poyo”, August 1892, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 2, 1975, Hav (...)

63José Martí was aware that the independence of Cuba and Puerto Rico would only be definitively guaranteed when the people of the United States expressed their solidarity with the peoples in struggle. “We would run a great risk if we did not manage to arouse the affection and the consideration of the people and the government of the United States”, he noted in a message to all the Presidents of the patriotic clubs of the Cuban Revolutionary Party. He then engaged in raising public awareness by disseminating a manifesto in English.91 However, he remained lucid about the chances of success of such an enterprise: “The press is not friendly” to the independence of Cuba. The same was true of “the Washington Government, which [was] not a friend” but rather “an invisible and powerful enemy” of the project to emancipate the people of the island.92

  • 93 José Martí, “A Serafín Sánchez”, 18 August 1892, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 2, 1975, Ha (...)
  • 94 José Martí, “Máximo Gómez”, 26 August 1893, in José Martí, Nuestra América 15, 1977, Caracas, Bibli (...)

64In September 1892, Martí went to the Dominican Republic to convince General Máximo Gómez to lead the Cuban separatists. In a letter to Serafín Sánchez, he expressed his esteem for the soldier: “From Gómez, I only expect greatness”.93 Martí added about him: “Where Gómez is, there is the healthy part of the country”. He specified an aspect which, according to him, defined him: “He prefers Don Quixote to all the other readings because it seems to him that it ‘is about the book in which the human rights of the poor are best defended’”.94. A veteran of the War of 1868, Gómez was an internationalist known for his military genius. In the letter addressed to him, Martí informed him of the unanimous opinion of the patriots: ‘The free Cuban people beg you to renew your sacrifice by helping the revolution as supreme commander in the field of war’. The leader of the Cuban Revolutionary Party ended his letter with the following remark:

  • 95 José Martí, “A Máximo Gómez”, 13 September 1892, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 2, 1975, Ha (...)

I have no other remuneration to offer you than the pleasure of sacrifice and the probable ingratitude of men. […] Great moments require great sacrifices. I come to ask you to abandon your children and your wife […] to help Cuba to conquer its freedom, with the risk of death. I come to ask you to substitute the pride of your well-being and the glorious peace of your rest for the chances of the revolution and the bitterness of the life consecrated to the service of men […] for freedom […] and definitive independence of the Antilles.95

  • 96 José Martí, “A Nicolás Domínguez Cowan”, 25 May 1893, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 2, 197 (...)
  • 97 José Martí, “A Máximo Gómez”, 6 May 1893, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 2, 1975, Havana, E (...)
  • 98 José Martí, “El Partido Revolucionario a Cuba”, 27 May 1893, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume (...)

65As a representative of the PRC, despite his fragile health which sometimes even deprived him of the strength to write a letter,96 Martí devoted all his time to federating Cuban emigration through the patriotic societies as well as the separatists of the island around of the emancipatory project. He went to great lengths to garner the widest possible support for the revolutionary enterprise and increased political meetings across the United States with the aim of educating his compatriots and raising funds. In June 1893, after convincing Máximo Gómez to take the helm of the organization of military operations,97 Martí again traveled to the Dominican Republic to scaffold plans for a future armed expedition which would culminate in a general uprising on the island. For him, separation from Spain was the only remedy for Cuban ills.98

  • 99 José Martí, “Al General Antonio Maceo”, 25 May 1893, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 2, 1975 (...)
  • 100 José Martí, “A Serafín Sánchez”, 25 July 1893, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 2, 1975, Hava (...)
  • 101 José Martí, “A Máximo Gómez”, 29 August 1893, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 2, 1975, Havan (...)

66José Martí also appealed to General Antonio Maceo, who had rejected the Pact of Zanjón with Spain in 1878, to participate in the revolutionary uprising. “The homeland claims once again all your bravery”, he wrote.99 In July 1893, he went to Costa Rica where Maceo resided in order to present the final project to him. He charged him with the organization of the revolutionary front in the eastern province of Cuba.100 Maceo accepted the leadership of Máximo Gómez and expressed his willingness to perform his duty “with enthusiasm and faith”.101

  • 102 José Martí, “La crisis y el Partido Revolucionario Cubano”, 19 August 1893, in José Martí, Obras Co (...)

67In an August 1893 message to Cuban emigrants, José Martí recalled that it was essential to conquer the homeland. He also passed an uncompromising judgment on U.S. society. “The North has been unjust and greedy” and “thought only of securing a few fortunes instead of founding a people for the good of all”. In addition, “all hatreds of the old monarchies have been transferred to the new American land”. There were no roots and no shelter in the United States and “charity and patriotism do not exist”. Martí denounced the frenzied individualism: here, “people do not learn to love each other”. The land was badly distributed. “Here there are more and more the rich on one side and the desperate on the other”. Cuba had to be different.102

  • 103 José Martí, “A Máximo Gómez”, 23 November 1893, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 2, 1975, Hav (...)

68In November 1893, Martí sent a letter to Máximo Gómez to remind him of the level of support for him and the confidence of all Cubans in him: “The main element of the faith that we have in Cuba in the success of the war is the certainty that you will lead it”. Weapons were only to be shipped to Cuba as the general uprising approached to avoid any unpleasant surprises. Spain, for its part, was aware of the patriotic turmoil and would not be caught off guard, Martí noted. On the contrary, Madrid was thoroughly preparing for war.103

  • 104 José Martí, “A Serafín Sánchez”, December 1893, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 2, 1975, Hav (...)

69As the organizer of the revolutionary movement, José Martí found himself in the crosshairs of the Spanish government, which decided to assassinate him. Agents sent by Madrid attempted to poison him while he was in Tampa in November 1893. Seriously ill, the PRC leader found himself depressed for several weeks. In a letter to Serafín Sánchez, he told him about his mishap: “My illness in Tampa was not natural. I suffered a lot. I still can’t hold a pen. My stomach still cannot stand any food after a month”.104

  • 105 José Martí, “Al General Antonio Maceo”, 8 January 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 3, 1 (...)
  • 106 José Martí, “A los Presidentes de los Clubs en el Cuerpo de Consejo de Key West”, 9 January 1894, i (...)

70In January 1894, José Martí informed Antonio Maceo that General Gómez, faced with the repression orchestrated by Spain against the revolutionary figures present in Cuba, was close to fixing the date for the general uprising.105 On January 9, 1894, Martí sent a message to all the clubs in Key West, urging them to provide all necessary aid to the insurgency. “It is of absolute and definitive urgency to carry out, without wasting a moment, the subscribed effort” in view of the revolutionary situation in the country.106

  • 107 José Martí, “Los cubanos de Jamaica y los revolucionarios de Haití”, 31 March 1894, in José Martí, (...)

71Faced with the imminence of the insurrectional war, Spain, with the aim of spreading fear, did not hesitate to raise the specter of the “war of races” and of a domination of the black population in independent Cuba. In the review Patria of March 31, 1894, José Martí gave his answer. He denounced “the arrogant minority, which out of freedom understands her free domination over her fellow citizens whom she considers to be inferior”, and which opposed the advent of an egalitarian Republic. This elite “prefers to humiliate itself in front of the foreign master and to serve him as an instrument rather than to recognize in political life, and to confirm with due consideration of treatment, the equality of rights of all men”.107

72On April 17, 1894, Martí appealed to all people of good will and invited them to support Cuba’s independence project in order to safeguard the independence of the Latin American continent:

  • 108 José Martí, “El tercer año del Partido Revolucionario Cubano”, 17 April 1894, in José Martí, Obras (...)

73Who rises today for Cuba rises for all time […] The independence of Cuba and Puerto Rico is not simply the only way to ensure the well-being of the free man in just work to the inhabitants of the two islands, but also the historical event essential to save the threatened independence of the Free Antilles, the threatened independence of Free America, and the dignity of the North American Republic.108

74The Cuban War of Independence was to lead to the full emancipation of the island and put a stop to U.S. expansionism.

9. The Second War of Independence

  • 109 José Martí, “Al General Máximo Gómez”, 25 June 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 3, 1975 (...)
  • 110 José Martí, “A Serafín Sánchez”, 2 September 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 3, 1975, (...)
  • 111 José Martí, “A Gualterío García y otros”, 5 September 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume (...)
  • 112 José Martí, “Al General Antonio Maceo”, 22 September 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 3 (...)

75In June 1894, José Martí and Máximo Gómez devised the plan to invade the island. Three expeditions would take place simultaneously from the United States, the Dominican Republic and Costa Rica. Gómez and Maceo would be leading the landings from Latin America. “I truly believe our time has come”, Martí wrote to Gómez.109 On September 2, 1894, Martí informed Serafín Sánchez of the imminent action: “I am preparing the boats and the weapons […]. Cuba has two months of final preparation which are essential for us”.110 The Cuban leader reminded key officials of the fundamental importance of discretion: “Dissimulation is undoubtedly the only necessary condition for the success [...] of our expeditionary organization”.111 In a September 22 letter to Maceo, Martí asked him to be absolutely ready by mid-October as the arrival of the various expeditions was to coincide with all the uprisings in the island.112

  • 113 José Martí, “Al General Antonio Maceo”, 3 November 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 3, (...)
  • 114 José Martí, José María Rodríguez & Enrique Collazo, “Plan de Alzamiento”, 8 December 1894, in José (...)

76For various reasons related to preparations inside the island, the insurgency was eventually postponed to a later date. Martí informed Maceo of this in a letter of November 3, 1894. “Revolutions, as individual as they appear, are the work of many wills and you often have to bow your own”, he wrote about it.113 Finally, on December 8, 1894, José Martí signed the Plan of Fernandina – named after a port in Florida – with Colonel José María Rodríguez, representative of Máximo Gómez, and Colonel Enrique Collazo, appointed by the separatists of the island, laying the foundations for a short and decisive insurrection. The uprising was scheduled for the end of December. The insurgents resolved to adopt an attitude of indulgence and not persecution towards any Spaniards on the island who chose not take up arms, respect all property and not demand any financial contribution from them. It would be necessary to act “against the Cubans who would oppose the revolution in arms, or who would probably contribute materially against it, always respecting, in the latter case, their lives”.114

  • 115 José Martí, “Al General Antonio Maceo”, December 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 3, 19 (...)
  • 116 José Martí, “A Juan Gualberto Gómez”, 17 January 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, 19 (...)
  • 117 José Martí, “A José Dolores Poyo”, 7 January 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, 1975, (...)
  • 118 José Martí, “Al General Máximo Gómez”, January 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, 1975 (...)

77The project was about to come true with the landing of three armed expeditions from Florida, Costa Rica and the Dominican Republic aboard the ships Amadís, Baracoa and Lagonda.115 However, a denunciation triggered the intervention of the U.S. authorities – opposed to Cuban independence –, thwarted the plan and delayed the outbreak of the Second War of Independence. Many weapons were confiscated by Washington.116 In a letter to the patriot José Dolores Poyo of January 7, 1895, Martí did not allow himself to be defeated by betrayal: “The cowardice, or more, of an inept man stabbed us from the start in our great work. We will be reborn. We are surrounded and supported by a greater respect and faith than ever before”.117 In a letter to Máximo Gómez, Martí showed resilience: “We saved the most important: discipline and respect for the island, astonished by this effort, and the affection of emigration, indignant at this patent villainy”.118

  • 119 José Martí, “Orden de Alzamiento”, 29 January 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, 1975, (...)
  • 120 José Martí, “A Tomás Estrada Palma”, 30 January 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, 197 (...)
  • 121 José Martí, “Al General Antonio Maceo”, 31 January 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, (...)
  • 122 José Martí, “A José C. Pons y Naranjo”, 31 January 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, (...)

78On January 29, 1895, José Martí, José María Rodríguez – representative of Máximo Gómez – and Enrique Collazo signed from New York the order of general uprising against Spain, which was set for February 24, 1895.119 On January 31, Martí left New York aboard the ship Athos for the Dominican Republic, to join General Máximo Gómez.120 He asked Antonio Maceo to organize his own expedition from Costa Rica and sent him the necessary funds.121 Martí was sure of the final victory: “Freedom comes our way, I see it, I feel it… The bloodshed in 1868 fertilized hearts and led to the emergence of new feelings”.122

  • 123 José Martí, “A Eduardo H. Gato”, January 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, 1975, Hava (...)
  • 124 José Martí, “A Gonzalo de Quesada”, February 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, 1975, (...)

79Martí preached the indispensable unity of all Cubans in favor of the emancipation of the island. In a February 1895 letter to his spiritual son Gonzalo de Quesada,123 he implored him to fight with all his might against the divisions that could undermine the revolutionary process. “Let no one dare to believe that at this time of common effort, there could arise the least mistrust, the least censorship, the slightest distance, the slightest reminiscence of bitterness, the slightest fratricidal arrogance on the part of the Cubans favorable to the Revolution towards other Cubans”, he wrote.124

  • 125 José Martí, “A Gonzalo de Quesada y Benjamín Guerra”, 26 February 1895, in José Martí, Obras Comple (...)

80On February 26, 1895, Martí wrote again to Gonzalo de Quesada about the situation on the island. “Cuba is on fire”, he notified him. The aim of the war was that “the Spaniards and Cubans can enjoy an orderly land in peace”. He rejected all sectarianism: “The revolution, generous and serene, will never treat as an enemy, in the Cuban of today, the autonomist of yesterday”. According to him, rich and poor fought together under the same banner of independence and put aside their differences in the name of the best interests of a homeland of brotherhood and justice.125

  • 126 José Martí & Máximo Gómez, “Manifiesto de Montecristi”, 25 March 1895, in José Martí, Obras Complet (...)

81On March 25, 1895, in the Dominican Republic, José Martí and Máximo Gómez drew up the Manifesto of Montecristi, a political-military action program in which they claimed the goals of national independence. “All those dedicated to the cleansing and emancipation of the country, for the good of America and the world”, had come together under one flag. Those who raised the specter of racial war to oppose the uprising were the same who had always supported the slavery of the black people: “Only those who hate black people see hatred in black people”. War, far from being an act of revenge, was “the solemn demonstration of a country’s will” to conquer its freedom and had “no other way out than victory or the grave”. The war was “the well-measured product of the resolve of steadfast men who, drawing on experience, made the decision to once again to face all the dangers they know, and of the cordial gathering of Cubans of the most diverse origins, convinced that one acquires much better in the conquest of freedom than in abject prostration the virtues necessary for its maintenance”. The war was not waged against the Spaniard and it was devoid of hatred towards him. The Revolution expressed “its absolute will to respect and ensure respect for neutral and honest Spaniards” and would be “inflexible only with vice, crime and inhumanity”. There was no resentment on the part of the patriots towards their cousins of the Iberian Peninsula: “The Cuban salutes the Spaniard in death whom the forced service cruelly tore from his home and his land to go, and piercing human breasts, murder the freedom he himself desires”.126

  • 127 José Martí, “A Fernando Henríquez y Carvajal”, 25 March 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volum (...)

82In a letter, written the same day, to his Dominican friend Federico Henríquez y Carvajal, Martí explained the reasons why he had a moral duty to fight alongside revolutionaries. It was not possible to preach to his people the need to die for freedom if he was not willing himself to risk his own life. “For me, the time has come”, he wrote. Finally, he recalled that the liberation of Cuba was vital for the continent: “The Free Antilles will save the independence of our America [...]. If I fall, it will also be for the independence of your homeland”.127

83Martí also wrote a farewell letter to his mother and reminded her, in the face of her grief as she saw her son ready for the ultimate sacrifice, that “a man’s duty is to be where he is most useful”. Asking for her blessing, he transmitted this last message to her: “Never will a work come out of my heart without piety or purity”.128

  • 129 José Martí, “Carta a Gonzalo de Quesada”, 1 April 1895, in José Martí, Nuestra América 15, 1977, Ca (...)
  • 130 José Martí, “Carta a Enrique Collazo”, 12 January 1892, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 1, 1 (...)
  • 131 José Martí, “Carta a Fernando Figueredo”, 15 January 1892, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 1 (...)

84In a letter of April 1, 1895 to Gonzalo de Quesada, Martí justified his participation in the combat, as a man of thought: “You know very well that serving is the best way to speak”.129 In another letter to Enrique Collazo, Martí reiterated his disposition to the ultimate sacrifice: “I believe that I have given to my land, since I have known the sweetness of its love, all that a man can give [… ]. I believe that I do not lack the courage necessary to die in its defense”. 130In another exchange with his patriotic friend Fernando Figueredo, Martí recalled the sacrifices made: “I have given everything to my homeland, including the peace of my home”, in reference to the forced separation with his wife and son who have returned for good. in Cuba in the early 1880s.131

  • 132 José Martí, “Carta a Gonzalo de Quesada y Benajamín Guerra”, 15 April 1895, in José Martí, Obras Co (...)
  • 133 José Martí, “A Tomás Estrada Palma”, 15 April 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, 1975, (...)

85On April 11, 1895, José Martí disembarked at La Playita, near Cajobabo, in the eastern part of the island, in the company of Máximo Gómez and they were received by members of the local guerrilla. 132A few days later, on April 15, the Main independence leaders, on the proposal of Máximo Gómez, decided to appoint Martí Major General of the Liberation Army. “What a privilege to live among men in their time of greatness”, he wrote.133

  • 134 José Martí, “A Bartolomé Masó”, 25 April 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, 1975, Hava (...)
  • 135 José Martí, “Carta a Gonzalo de Quesada y Benajamín Guerra”, 26 April 1895, in José Martí, Obras Co (...)

86Martí was aware of the political and economic situation in Spain and of the balance of power between royalists and separatists. In a letter to the patriot Bartolomé Masó of April 25, 1895, he noted that the enemy “did not have sufficient elements either on the island or abroad to support his long and costly campaigns, and even less to get the victory”.134 Moreover, the population’s support for the revolutionaries was unanimous: “The veterans admit that they have never received similar aid from the country”.135

87On April 26, 1895, Máximo Gómez and José Martí sent a circular to all the independence leaders to remind them of the principles that cemented the armed uprising. Patriots were to oppose “unnecessary devastation and unnecessary violence”. Weapons would only be laid down by insurgents with “recognition of the country’s independence”. The circular ratified the Cubans’ aspiration for dignity:

  • 136 José Martí & Máximo Gómez, “Circular a los Jefes”, 26 April 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, v (...)

An American people like Cuba, with their own character and elements of life, capable of governing themselves through the culture and the labor of their children and united after slavery in the sacrifice of war cannot continue to live in the servitude of a distant people like the Spanish […]. The war for the independence of a people and for the dignity of humiliated men is a sacred war, and the creation of a free people that we conquer with it is a universal service.136

  • 137 José Martí & Máximo Gómez, “Circular: Política de guerra a los Jefes”, 28 April 1895, in José Martí (...)

88Two days later, on April 28, Gómez and Martí recalled the war policy which was to animate the patriots. “The war must be genuinely generous, free from all unnecessary acts of violence against people and property, and from any display or indication of hatred towards the Spaniard”. People originally from the Iberian Peninsula and settled in Cuba had to feel “the confidence that they will be able to live peacefully in Cuba after peace”. Finally, prisoners of war should be released “alive and grateful”.137

89On May 18, 1895, the day before his sacrifice in battle, José Martí wrote his last letter to his Mexican friend Manuel Mercado. He expressed his deep fears to him: “Spain would rather come to an agreement with the United States than to give the island back to the Cubans”. It was absolutely necessary to avoid “the annexation of Cuba to the United States”. He denounced Washington’s desire for domination:

  • 138 José Martí, “Carta a Manuel Mercado”, 18 May 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, 1975, (...)

Now I risk every day to give my life for my country and for my duty […] which is to prevent before it is too late, by means of the independence of Cuba, that the United States does not spread through the West Indies before falling, with this additional force, on our homelands in the Americas […]. These minor and official obligations which are peculiar to the peoples […] most vitally interested in preventing Cuba, on the occasion of its annexation by the imperialists of the North and because of the Spaniards, from being opened the way – which must be obstructed and that with our blood we will obstruct – of the annexation of the peoples of our America to the restless and brutal North which despises them.138

  • 139 Delfín Xiqués Cutiño, “Cuatro versiones sobre la muerte de José Martí”, Granma, 17 May 2019. http:/ (...)

90On May 19, 1895, José Martí fell in the field of honor at the age of 42 in a clash with Spanish troops at Dos Ríos, near Palma Soriano, while he was in the company of Máximo Gómez and Bartolomé Masó. Refusing to remain in the rearguard, Martí separated from his troops with his aide-de-camp Angel de la Guardia and charged on the Spanish army. He was then hit with three bullets which caused fatal injuries. Spanish captain Antonio Serra Orts, who was in command of the troops, expressed his amazement upon discovering the identity of the Cuban leader: “My God! Why was Martí fighting in the vanguard? How is it possible that a future President of the Cuban Republic is fighting like a guerrilla?”. On May 27, 1895, José Martí was buried in the Santa Ifigenia cemetery in Santiago de Cuba.139

Conclusion

91In 1898, after three years of war, the Cuban patriots were on the verge of winning the final victory over Spain and finally gaining their independence after nearly thirty years of struggle. Just as the ultimate triumph was on the horizon, the United States decided to intervene militarily in Cuba to prevent the island from achieving its legitimate emancipation. The Paris Peace Treaty would be signed in 1898 between Madrid and Washington, without the presence of Cubans who had nevertheless shed their blood to achieve their freedom. After three years of military occupation, the White House forced Cuba to incorporate the Platt Amendment into the new Constitution, which blocked any possibility of true independence. This indeed authorized the powerful neighbor to intervene militarily at any time in the island to protect its interests and required the new Cuban authorities to obtain its agreement before signing any agreement – whatever it would be – with a foreign power. José Martí’s fears turned out to be correct and Cuba changed from being a Spanish colony to that of a U.S. protectorate.

92One hundred years after the birth of José Martí on July 26, 1953, Fidel Castro would lead an insurrectionary movement of Cuban youth, called “the generation of the centenary”. It would claim the ideals of the Cuban Apostle, the “intellectual author” of the attack on the Moncada barracks against the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista. On January 1, 1959, the Cuban Revolution would triumph and the Martinian dream of a free and sovereign Cuba would finally come true. The Cuban Constitution would be based on “the ideals of José Martí”140 and the Cuban Communist Party would present itself as “a faithful successor to the Cuban Revolutionary Party founded by José Martí”.141

  • 142 José Martí, “Versos Sencillos”, 1891, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Cent (...)
  • 143 Gonzalo de Quesada, Así fue Martí, Havana, Editorial Gente Nueva, 1977, p. 93.

93A man of ideas and action, José Martí is above all the symbol of Cuban independence and sovereignty and the architect of Cuban nationality, cubanía. Bearer of universal ideas of emancipation, he laid the foundations of national unity, not only against Spanish colonialism but above all against the expansionism of the United States, while advocating a great Pan-American union that would realize Bolívar’s dream of the “Great Homeland”. Both visionary and man of his time, precursor of anti-imperialism, convinced that “Homeland is humanity”, he linked his destiny with the fate of the humble, “with the poor of the earth” as he proclaimed in Versos sencillos, 142and was faithful to the adage that “the only autograph worthy of a man is that which he writes with his deeds”.143

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MARTÍ José, « 1875-1876 México », in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2000, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, tomo 3.

MARTÍ José, « 1875-1876 México », in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2001, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2011, tomo 4.

MARTÍ José, « Sociedad Alarcón », in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2001, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2011, tomo 4.

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MARTÍ José, « A Nicolás Domínguez Cowan », 1er janvier 1877, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2001, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, tomo 5.

MARTÍ José, « A Manuel A. Mercado », 19 avril 1877, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2001, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, tomo 5.

MARTÍ José, « A Joaquín Macal », 11 avril 1877, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2001, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, tomo 5.

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MARTÍ José, « Fragmentos del discurso pronunciado en la inauguración del Liceo de Regla », 1er février 1879, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2002, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, tomo 6.

MARTÍ José, « Brindis en el banquete celebrado en honor a Adolfo Márquez Sterling, en los salones altos de El Louvre », 21 avril 1879, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2002, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, tomo 6.

MARTÍ José, « Apuntes para un discurso », 1879, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2002, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, tomo 6.

MARTÍ José, « A Leandro J. de Viniegra », 11 octobre 1879, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2002, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, tomo 6.

MARTÍ José, « A Miguel F. Viondi », 13 octobre 1879, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2002, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, tomo 6.

MARTÍ José, « A Miguel F. Viondi », 8 janvier 1880, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2002, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, tomo 6.

MARTÍ José, « Asuntos cubanos. Lectura en Steck Hall, New York », 24 janvier 1880, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2002, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, tomo 6.

MARTÍ José, « El Comité Revolucionario de Nueva York », 28 avril 1880, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2002, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, tomo 6.

MARTÍ José, « Circular », 28 avril 1880, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2002, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, tomo 6.

MARTÍ José, « Al General Antonio Maceo », 20 juillet 1882, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, tomo 17.

MARTÍ José, « A Ramón Emeterio Betances », mai 1880, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2002, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, tomo 6.

MARTÍ José, « A Emilio Núñez », 13 octobre 1880, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2002, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, tomo 6.

MARTÍ José, « A Fausto Teodoro de Aldrey », 22 mars 1881, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2003, tomo 8.

MARTÍ José, « A Fausto Teodoro de Aldrey », 27 juillet 1881, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2003, tomo 8.

MARTÍ José, « Revista Venezolana », 1er juillet 1881, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2003, tomo 8.

MARTÍ José, « Cecilio Acosta », 15 juillet 1881, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2003, tomo 8.

MARTÍ José, « Cartas de Nueva York », 1881-1882, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2004, tomo 9.

MARTÍ José, « Cartas de Nueva York », 1881-1882, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2005, tomo 10.

MARTÍ José, « Cartas de Nueva York », 1881-1882, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2006, tomo 11.

MARTÍ José, « Sección constante », 1881-1882, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2006, tomo 12.

MARTÍ José, « Sección constante », 1881-1882, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, tomo 13.

MARTÍ José, « Carta de Nueva York expresamente escrita para La Opinión Nacional », 4 février 1882, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2004, tomo 9.

MARTÍ José, « Carta de Nueva York », 4 février 1882, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, tomo 17.

MARTÍ José, « Carta de Nueva York », 29 mars 1883, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, tomo 17.

MARTÍ José, « A Bartolomé Vitre Vedia », 19 décembre 1882, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, tomo 17.

MARTÍ José, « A Amalia Martí Pérez », 28 février 1883, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, tomo 17.

MARTÍ José, « Cartas de Martí, Estados Unidos de América », 1er septembre 1883, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, tomo 17.

MARTÍ José, « La revolución del trabajo », 25 mars 1886, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2011, tomo 23.

MARTÍ José, « Las huelgas en Estados Unidos », 25 mars 1886, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2011, tomo 23.

MARTÍ José, « Las grandes huelgas en los Estados Unidos », 27 avril 1886, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2011, tomo 23.

MARTÍ José, « Grandes motines de obreros », 16 mai 1886, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2011, tomo 23.

MARTÍ José, « Correspondencia particular para El Partido Liberal », 2 février 1887, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2013, tomo 25.

MARTÍ José, « Cartas de Martí », 17 août 1887, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2015, tomo 26.

MARTÍ José, « A Manuel Mercado », entre le 9 février et août 1884, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, tomo 17.

MARTÍ José, « Al General Máximo Gómez », 20 juillet 1882, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, tomo 17.

MARTÍ José, « Cartas de Martí », 15 janvier 1885, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2011, tomo 22.

MARTÍ José, « A Manuel Mercado », 13 novembre 1884, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, tomo 17.

MARTÍ José, « A Carlos Farini », 10 octobre 1884, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, tomo 17.

MARTÍ José, « Al General Máximo Gómez », 20 octobre 1884, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, tomo 17.

MARTÍ José, « Reforma esencial en el programa de las universidades americanas. Estudio de las lenguas vivas. Gradual desentendimiento del estudio de las lenguas muertas », janvier 1884, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2011, tomo 19.

MARTÍ José, « Maestros ambulantes, espíritu de la instrucción que proponemos, manera en que puede realizarse, urge establecer la enseñanza elemental científica », mai 1884, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2011, tomo 19.

MARTÍ José, « A Manuel Mercado », 22 avril 1886, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2011, tomo 23.

MARTÍ José, « Cartas de Martí », 10 octobre 1887, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2017, tomo 27.

MARTÍ José, « A Juan Fernández Ruz », 20 octobre 1887, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2017, tomo 27.

MARTÍ José, « Al General Máximo Gómez», 16 décembre 1887, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2017, tomo 27.

MARTÍ José, « ¿Queremos a Cuba », The Manufacturer, 16 mars 1889, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 1, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « Vindicación de Cuba », 25 mars 1889, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 1, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « A Gonzalo de Quesada », 29 octobre 1889, in José Martí, Nuestra América 15, 1977, Caracas, Biblioteca Ayacucho, 2005.

MARTÍ José, « A Gonzalo de Quesada », 14 décembre 1889, in José Martí, Nuestra América 15, 1977, Caracas, Biblioteca Ayacucho, 2005.

MARTÍ José, « Carta a Serafín Bello », 16 novembre 1889, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 1, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « Discurso pronunciado ante la Sociedad Literaria Hispanoaméricana (‘Madre América’) », 19 décembre 1889, in José Martí, Nuestra América 15, 1977, Caracas, Biblioteca Ayacucho, 2005.

MARTÍ José, « Tres héroes », juillet 1889, in José Martí, Nuestra América 15, 1977, Caracas, Biblioteca Ayacucho, 2005.

MARTÍ José, « Carta a Emilio Núñez », 15 mai 1890, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 1, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « Carta a Juan Bonilla », 8 août 1890 1890, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 1, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « Nuestra América », 30 janvier 1891, in José Martí, Nuestra América 15, 1977, Caracas, Biblioteca Ayacucho, 2005.

MARTÍ José, « Las conferencias internacional y monetaria », 28 septembre 1889, in José Martí, Nuestra América 15, 1977, Caracas, Biblioteca Ayacucho, 2005.

MARTÍ José, « Al Ministro de la Argentina », 17 octobre 1891, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 1, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « Carta a Manuel Mercado », 18 mai 1895, in Granma, 18 mai 2010. http://www.granma.cu/granmad/2010/05/18/nacional/artic01.html (site consulté le 31 août 2019)

MARTÍ José, « Discurso en el Liceo Cubano de Tampa », 26 novembre 1891, in Centro de Estudios Martianoshttp://www.josemarti.cu/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/DI06.pdf (site consulté le 31 août 2019).

MARTÍ José, « Bases del Partido Revolucionario Cubano », janvier 1892, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 1, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « Discurso en Cayo Hueso”, 25 décembre 1891, in Centro de Estudios Martianoshttp://www.josemarti.cu/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/DI06.pdf (site consulté le 1er septembre 2019).

MARTÍ José, « Nuestras ideas », 14 mars 1892, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 1, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « La política », 19 mars 1892, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 1, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « La política », 3 avril 1892, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 1, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « A los Presidentes de los Clubs del Partido Revolucionario Cubano », 13 mai 1892, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 1, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « A José Dolores Poyo », août 1892, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 2, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « A Serafín Sánchez », 18 août 1892, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 2, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « Máximo Gómez », 26 août 1893, in José Martí, Nuestra América 15, 1977, Caracas, Biblioteca Ayacucho, 2005.

MARTÍ José, « A Máximo Gómez », 13 septembre 1892, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 2, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « A Nicolás Domínguez Cowan », 25 mai 1893, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 2, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « A Máximo Gómez », 6 mai 1893, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 2, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « El Partido Revolucionario a Cuba », 27 mai 1893, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 2, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « Al General Antonio Maceo », 25 mai 1893, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 2, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « A Serafín Sánchez », 25 juillet 1893, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 2, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « A Máximo Gómez », 29 août 1893, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 2, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « La crisis y el Partido Revolucionario Cubano », 19 août 1893, in José Martí, Obras Completas, -tomo 2, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « A Máximo Gómez », 23 novembre 1893, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 2, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « A Serafín Sánchez », décembre 1893, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 2, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « Al General Antonio Maceo », 8 janvier 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 3, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « A los Presidentes de los Clubs en el Cuerpo de Consejo de Key West », 9 janvier 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 3, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « Los cubanos de Jamaica y los revolucionarios de Haití », 31 mars 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 3, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « El tercer año del Partido Revolucionario Cubano », 17 avril 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 3, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « Al General Máximo Gómez », 25 juin 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 3, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « A Serafín Sánchez », 2 septembre 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 3, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « A Gualterío García y otros », 5 septembre 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 3, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « Al General Antonio Maceo », 22 septembre 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 3, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « Al General Antonio Maceo », 3 novembre 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 3, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, José María Rodríguez & Enrique Collazo, « Plan de Alzamiento », 8 décembre 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 3, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « Al General Antonio Maceo », décembre 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 3, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « Al General Antonio Maceo », 25 décembre 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 3, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « A Juan Gualberto Gómez », 17 janvier 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 4, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « Al General Antonio Maceo », 19 janvier 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 4, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « A José Dolores Poyo », 7 janvier 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 4, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « Al General Máximo Gómez », janvier 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 4, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « Orden de Alzamiento », 29 janvier 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 4, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « A Tomás Estrada Palma », 30 janvier 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 4, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « Al General Antonio Maceo », 31 janvier 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 4, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « A José C. Pons y Naranjo », 31 janvier 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 4, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « A Eduardo H. Gato », janvier 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 4, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « A Gonzalo de Quesada », février 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 4, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « A Gonzalo de Quesada y Benjamín Guerra », 26 février 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 4, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, & Máximo Gómez, « Manifiesto de Montecristi », 25 mars 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 4, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « A Fernando Henríquez y Carvajal », 25 mars 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 4, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « Carta a su madre », 25 mars 1895, Centro de Estudios Martianoshttp://www.josemarti.cu/publicacion/montecristi-25-marzo-1895/ (site consulté le 30 août 2019).

MARTÍ José, « Carta a Gonzalo de Quesada, 1er avril 1895, in José Martí, Nuestra América 15, 1977, Caracas, Biblioteca Ayacucho, 2005.

MARTÍ José, « Carta a Enrique Collazo », 12 janvier 1892, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 1, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « Carta a Fernando Figueredo », 15 janvier 1892, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 1, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « Carta a Gonzalo de Quesada y Benjamín Guerra », 15 avril 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 4, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « A Tomás Estrada Palma », 15 avril 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 4, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « A Bartolomé Masó », 25 avril 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 4, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « Carta a Gonzalo de Quesada y Benjamín Guerra », 26 avril 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 4, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, & Máximo Gómez, « Circular a los Jefes », 26 avril 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 4, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, & Máximo Gómez, « Circular: Política de guerra a los Jefes », 28 avril 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 4, 1975, La Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « Carta a Manuel Mercado », 18 mai 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, tomo 4, 1975, La -Havane, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991.

MARTÍ José, « Versos Sencillos », 1891, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, La Havane, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2007, tomo 14.

PARTIDO COMUNISTA DE CUBA, « Estatutos del PCC ». http://congresopcc.cip.cu/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/estatutos.pdf (site consulté le 31 août 2019).

QUESADA, Gonzalo de, Así fue Martí, La Havane, Editorial Gente Nueva, 1977.

REPÚBLICA DE CUBA, « Constitución de la República de Cuba ». http://www.cuba.cu/gobierno/cuba.htm (site consulté le 31 août 2019).

XIQUÉS CUTIÑO, Delfín, « Cuatro versiones sobre la muerte de José Martí », Granma, 17 mai 2019. http://www.granma.cu/hoy-en-la-historia/2019-05-17/cuatro-versiones-sobre-la-muerte-de-jose-marti-17-05-2019-15-05-58 (site consulté le 13 septembre 2019).

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Notes

1 José Martí, “Fermín Valdés Domínguez”, Patria, 3 February 1894, in Centro de Estudios Martianos. http://www.josemarti.cu/publicacion/fermin-valdes-dominguez/ (Accessed 31 August 2019).

2 José Martí, “El plato de lentejas”, 5 January 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 3, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 26-27.

3 José Martí, “Carta al Sr. Enrique Trujillo”, 1891, in Centro de Estudios Martianos. http://www.josemarti.cu/publicacion/rafael-maria-de-mendive/ (Accessed 31 August 2019).

4 José Martí, “¡10 de octubre!”, Centro de Estudios Martianos. http://www.josemarti.cu/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/025_%C2%A110_DE_OCTUBRE.pdf (Accessed 11 September 2019).

5 José Martí, “El plato de lentejas”, 5 January 1894, op. cit.

6 José Martí, “El Diablo Cojuelo”, 19 January 1869 in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 1983, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, volume 1, p. 19-20.

7 José Martí, “Abdala”, La Patria Libre, 23 January 1869 in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 1983, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, volume 1, p. 33.

8 José Martí, “El Presidio político en Cuba”, 1871, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 1983, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, volume 1, p. 63.

9 José Martí, “A Rafael María de Mendive”, 15 January 1871, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 1983, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, volume 1, p. 49.

10 José Martí, “Carta a Manuel Mercado”, 12 September 1892, in Centro de Estudios Martianos. http://www.josemarti.cu/publicacion/el-album-de-clemencia-gomez/ (Accessed 11 September 2019).

11 José Martí, “Guatemala”, 1878, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2001, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, volume 5, p. 284.

12 José Martí, Cartas desde Nueva York, México, Siglo XXI, 1980, p. 213.

13 José Martí, “Castillo”, La Soberanía Nacional, 24 March 1871, op. cit., p. 50-51.

14 José Martí, “El Presidio político en Cuba”, 1871, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 1983, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, volume 1, p. 66.

15 Ibid., p. 69, 71.

16 José Martí, “El día 27 de noviembre de 1871”, 1871, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 1983, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, volume 1, p. 98.

17 José Martí, “La República Española ante la Revolución Cubana”, 1871, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 1983, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, volume 1, p. 101-110.

18 Centro de Estudios Martianos, “Biografía”. http://www.josemarti.cu/biografia/ (Accessed 31 August 2019).

19 José Martí, “1875-1876 México”, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 1983, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, volume 1, p. 245-283 ; José Martí, “1875-1876 México”, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 1985, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, volume 2, p. 11-283 ; José Martí, “1875-1876 México”, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2000, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, volume 3, p. 11-242 ; José Martí, “1875-1876 México”, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2001, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2011, volume 4, p. 11-387.

20 José Martí, “1875-1876 México”, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 1985, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, volume 2, p. 284-287.

21 José Martí, “Sociedad Alarcón”, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2001, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2011, volume 4, p. 231-232, 234-235.

22 José Martí, “A Manuel A. Mercado”, 1 January 1877, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2001, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, volume 5, p. 13-16.

23 José Martí, “A Manuel A. Mercado”, 22 January 1877, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2001, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, volume 5, p. 13-16.

24 José Martí, “Ismaelillo”, 1882, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2007, volume 14, p. 17-197.

25 José Martí, “A Nicolás Domínguez Cowan”, 1 January 1877, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2001, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, volume 5, p. 17-18.

26 José Martí, “A Manuel A. Mercado”, 19 April 1877, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2001, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, volume 5, p. 85-86.

27 José Martí, “A Joaquín Macal”, 11 April 1877, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2001, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, volume 5, p. 83 ; José Martí, « Los Códigos Nuevos », 22 April 1877, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2001, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, volume 5, p. 89-93.

28 José Martí, “Patria y Libertad”, 11 April 1877, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2001, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, volume 5, p. 109-135.

29 José Martí, “Guatemala”, 1878, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2001, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, volume 5, p. 235-287.

30 José Martí, “A Manuel Mercado”, 6 July 1878, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2001, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, volume 5, p. 311.

31 José Martí, “Fragmentos del discurso pronunciado en la inauguración del Liceo de Regla”, 1 February 1879, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2002, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, volume 6, p. 15-16.

32 José Martí, “Brindis en el banquete celebrado en honor a Adolfo Márquez Sterling, en los salones altos de El Louvre”, 21 April 1879, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2002, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, volume 6, p. 59.

33 José Martí, “Apuntes para un discurso”, 1879, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2002, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, volume 6, p. 94.

34 José Martí, “A Leandro J. de Viniegra”, 11 October 1879, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2002, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, volume 6, p. 116.

35 José Martí, “A Miguel F. Viondi”, 13 October 1879, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2002, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, volume 6, p. 117-118.

36 José Martí, “A Miguel F. Viondi”, 8 January 1880, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2002, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, volume 6, p. 188.

37 José Martí, “Asuntos cubanos. Lectura en Steck Hall, New York”, 24 January 1880, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2002, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, volume 6, p. 133-165.

38 José Martí, “El Comité Revolucionario de Nueva York”, 28 April 1880, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2002, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, volume 6, p. 171-183.

39 José Martí, “Circular”, 28 April 1880, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2002, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, volume 6, p. 169.

40 José Martí, “Al General Antonio Maceo”, 20 July 1882, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, volume 17, p. 323.

41 José Martí, “A Ramón Emeterio Betances”, May 1880, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2002, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, volume 6, p. 216.

42 José Martí, “A Emilio Núñez”, 13 October 1880, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, 2002, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, volume 6, p. 222-225.

43 José Martí, “A Fausto Teodoro de Aldrey”, 22 March 1881, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2003, volume 8, p. 50.

44 José Martí, “A Fausto Teodoro de Aldrey”, 27 July 1881, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2003, volume 8, p. 110.

45 José Martí, “Revista Venezolana”, 1 July 1881, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2003, volume 8, p. 53-58, 85-92.

46 José Martí, “Cecilio Acosta”, 15 July 1881, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2003, volume 8, p. 93-108.

47 José Martí, “A Fausto Teodoro de Aldrey”, 27 July 1881, op. cit.

48 José Martí, “Cartas de Nueva York”, 1881-1882, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2004, volume 9, p. 15-352 ; José Martí, « Cartas de Nueva York », 1881-1882, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2005, volume 10, p. 13-208 ; José Martí, “Cartas de Nueva York”, 1881-1882, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2006, volume 11, p. 13-220 ; José Martí, “Sección constante”, 1881-1882, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2006, volume 12, p. 11-271 ; José Martí, “Sección constante”, 1881-1882, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2009, volume 13, p. 13-197.

49 José Martí, “Carta de Nueva York expresamente escrita para La Opinión Nacional”, 4 February 1882, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2004, volume 9, p. 253.

50 José Martí, “Carta de Nueva York”, 4 February 1882, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, volume 17, p. 17-19.

51 José Martí, “Carta de Nueva York”, 29 March 1883, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, volume 17, p. 64-65.

52 José Martí, “A Bartolomé Vitre Vedia”, 19 December 1882, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, volume 17, p. 354.

53 José Martí, “A Amalia Martí Pérez”, 28 February 1883, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, volume 17, p. 364.

54 José Martí, “Cartas de Martí, Estados Unidos de América”, 1 September 1883, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, volume 17, p. 136.

55 José Martí, “La revolución del trabajo”, 25 March 1886, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2011, volume 23, p. 93-99. See also José Martí, “Las huelgas en Estados Unidos”, 25 March 1886, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2011, volume 23, p. 100-113 ; José Martí, “Las grandes huelgas en los Estados Unidos”, 27 April 1886, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2011, volume 23, p. 114-127 ; José Martí, “Grandes motines de obreros”, 16 May 1886, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2011, Volume 23, p. 156-168.

56 Ibid., p. 97.

57 José Martí, “Correspondencia particular para El Partido Liberal”, 2 February 1887, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2013, volume 25, p. 139-140.

58 José Martí, “Cartas de Martí”, 17 August 1887, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2015, volume 26, p. 126.

59 José Martí, “A Manuel Mercado”, between 9 February and August 1884, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, volume 17, p. 376.

60 José Martí, “Al General Máximo Gómez”, 20 July 1882, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, volume 17, p. 328.

61 José Martí, “Cartas de Martí”, 15 January 1885, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2011, volume 22, p. 24.

62 José Martí, “A Manuel Mercado”, 13 November 1884, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, volume 17, p. 394.

63 José Martí, “A Carlos Farini”, 10 October 1884, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, volume 17, p. 383.

64 José Martí, “Al General Máximo Gómez”, 20 October 1884, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2010, volume 17, p. 384-387.

65 José Martí, “Reforma esencial en el programa de las universidades americanas. Estudio de las lenguas vivas. Gradual desentendimiento del estudio de las lenguas muertas”, January 1884, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2011, volume 19, p. 39.

66 José Martí, “Maestros ambulantes, espíritu de la instrucción que proponemos, manera en que puede realizarse, urge establecer la enseñanza elemental científica”, May 1884, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2011, volume 19, p. 185-186.

67 José Martí, “A Manuel Mercado”, 22 April 1886, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2011, volume 23, p. 193-200.

68 José Martí, “Cartas de Martí”, 10 October 1887, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2017, volume 27, p. 25.

69 José Martí, “A Juan Fernández Ruz”, 20 October 1887, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2017, volume 27, p.170 .

70 José Martí, “Al General Máximo Gómez”, 16 December 1887, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2017, volume 27, p. 217-225.

71 José Martí, “¿Queremos a Cuba”, The Manufacturer, 16 March 1889, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 1, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 232-234.

72 José Martí, “Vindicación de Cuba”, 25 March 1889, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 1, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 236-241.

73 José Martí, “A Gonzalo de Quesada”, 29 October 1889, in José Martí, Nuestra América 15, 1977, Caracas, Biblioteca Ayacucho, 2005, p. 136.

74 José Martí, “A Gonzalo de Quesada”, 14 December 1889, in José Martí, Nuestra América 15, 1977, Caracas, Biblioteca Ayacucho, 2005, p. 140.

75 José Martí, “Carta a Serafín Bello”, 16 November 1889, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 1, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 255.

76 José Martí, “Discurso pronunciado ante la Sociedad Literaria Hispanoaméricana (‘Madre América’)”, 19 December 1889, in José Martí, Nuestra América 15, 1977, Caracas, Biblioteca Ayacucho, 2005, p. 22-30.

77 José Martí, “Tres héroes”, July 1889, in José Martí, Nuestra América 15, 1977, Caracas, Biblioteca Ayacucho, 2005, p. 257.

78 José Martí, “Carta a Emilio Núñez”, 15 May 1890, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 1, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 259-260.

79 José Martí, “Carta a Juan Bonilla”, 8 August 1890, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 1, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 261.

80 José Martí, “Nuestra América”, 30 January 1891, in José Martí, Nuestra América 15, 1977, Caracas, Biblioteca Ayacucho, 2005, p. 31-39.

81 José Martí, “Las conferencias internacional y monetaria”, 28 September 1889, in José Martí, Nuestra América 15, 1977, Caracas, Biblioteca Ayacucho, 2005, p. 41-132.

82 José Martí, “Al Ministro de la Argentina”, 17 October 1891, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 1, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 265-266.

83 José Martí, “Carta a Manuel Mercado”, 18 May 1895, in Granma, 18 May 2010. http://www.granma.cu/granmad/2010/05/18/nacional/artic01.html (Accessed 31 August 2019)

84 Juan Marinello, Obras Martianas, Caracas, Biblioteca Ayacucho, 1987, p. 154.

85 José Martí, “Discurso en el Liceo Cubano de Tampa”, 26 November 1891, in Centro de Estudios Martianos. http://www.josemarti.cu/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/DI06.pdf (Accessed 31 August 2019).

86 José Martí, “Bases del Partido Revolucionario Cubano”, January 1892, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 1, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 279-280.

87 José Martí, “Discurso en Cayo Hueso”, 25 December 1891, in Centro de Estudios Martianos. http://www.josemarti.cu/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/DI06.pdf (Accessed 1 September 2019).

88 José Martí, “Nuestras ideas”, 14 March 1892, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 1, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 315-322.

89 José Martí, “La política”, 19 March 1892, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 1, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 335-337.

90 José Martí, “La política”, 3 April 1892, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 1, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 365.

91 José Martí, “A los Presidentes de los Clubs del Partido Revolucionario Cubano”, 13 May 1892, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 1, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 447.

92 José Martí, “A José Dolores Poyo”, August 1892, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 2, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 81.

93 José Martí, “A Serafín Sánchez”, 18 August 1892, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 2, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 121.

94 José Martí, “Máximo Gómez”, 26 August 1893, in José Martí, Nuestra América 15, 1977, Caracas, Biblioteca Ayacucho, 2005, p. 246-247.

95 José Martí, “A Máximo Gómez”, 13 September 1892, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 2, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 160-164.

96 José Martí, “A Nicolás Domínguez Cowan”, 25 May 1893, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 2, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 326-327.

97 José Martí, “A Máximo Gómez”, 6 May 1893, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 2, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 321-323.

98 José Martí, “El Partido Revolucionario a Cuba”, 27 May 1893, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 2, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 342.

99 José Martí, “Al General Antonio Maceo”, 25 May 1893, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 2, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 328-329.

100 José Martí, “A Serafín Sánchez”, 25 July 1893, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 2, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 356-358.

101 José Martí, “A Máximo Gómez”, 29 August 1893, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 2, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 386.

102 José Martí, “La crisis y el Partido Revolucionario Cubano”, 19 August 1893, in José Martí, Obras Completas, -volume 2, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 367-368.

103 José Martí, “A Máximo Gómez”, 23 November 1893, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 2, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 443-446.

104 José Martí, “A Serafín Sánchez”, December 1893, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 2, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 467.

105 José Martí, “Al General Antonio Maceo”, 8 January 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 3, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 35-37.

106 José Martí, “A los Presidentes de los Clubs en el Cuerpo de Consejo de Key West”, 9 January 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 3, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 37-38.

107 José Martí, “Los cubanos de Jamaica y los revolucionarios de Haití”, 31 March 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 3, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 104.

108 José Martí, “El tercer año del Partido Revolucionario Cubano”, 17 April 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 3, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 143.

109 José Martí, “Al General Máximo Gómez”, 25 June 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 3, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 217-221.

110 José Martí, “A Serafín Sánchez”, 2 September 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 3, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 243-244.

111 José Martí, “A Gualterío García y otros”, 5 September 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 3, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 244.

112 José Martí, “Al General Antonio Maceo”, 22 September 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 3, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 269.

113 José Martí, “Al General Antonio Maceo”, 3 November 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 3, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 331.

114 José Martí, José María Rodríguez & Enrique Collazo, “Plan de Alzamiento”, 8 December 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 3, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 419-421.

115 José Martí, “Al General Antonio Maceo”, December 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 3, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 442-444 ; José Martí, “Al General Antonio Maceo”, 25 December 1894, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 3, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 445-447.

116 José Martí, “A Juan Gualberto Gómez”, 17 January 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 18-21 ; José Martí, “Al General Antonio Maceo”, 19 January 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 22-25.

117 José Martí, “A José Dolores Poyo”, 7 January 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 15.

118 José Martí, “Al General Máximo Gómez”, January 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 18.

119 José Martí, “Orden de Alzamiento”, 29 January 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 41-42.

120 José Martí, “A Tomás Estrada Palma”, 30 January 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 49.

121 José Martí, “Al General Antonio Maceo”, 31 January 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 52.

122 José Martí, “A José C. Pons y Naranjo”, 31 January 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 53.

123 José Martí, “A Eduardo H. Gato”, January 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 51.

124 José Martí, “A Gonzalo de Quesada”, February 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 59.

125 José Martí, “A Gonzalo de Quesada y Benjamín Guerra”, 26 February 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 71-75.

126 José Martí & Máximo Gómez, “Manifiesto de Montecristi”, 25 March 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 93-101.

127 José Martí, “A Fernando Henríquez y Carvajal”, 25 March 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 110-112.

128 José Martí, “Carta a su madre”, 25 March 1895, Centro de Estudios Martianos. http://www.josemarti.cu/publicacion/montecristi-25-marzo-1895/ (Accessed 30 August 2019).

129 José Martí, “Carta a Gonzalo de Quesada”, 1 April 1895, in José Martí, Nuestra América 15, 1977, Caracas, Biblioteca Ayacucho, 2005, p. 5.

130 José Martí, “Carta a Enrique Collazo”, 12 January 1892, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 1, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 293.

131 José Martí, “Carta a Fernando Figueredo”, 15 January 1892, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 1, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 294.

132 José Martí, “Carta a Gonzalo de Quesada y Benajamín Guerra”, 15 April 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 124-130.

133 José Martí, “A Tomás Estrada Palma”, 15 April 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 131.

134 José Martí, “A Bartolomé Masó”, 25 April 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 132.

135 José Martí, “Carta a Gonzalo de Quesada y Benajamín Guerra”, 26 April 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 134.

136 José Martí & Máximo Gómez, “Circular a los Jefes”, 26 April 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 135-137.

137 José Martí & Máximo Gómez, “Circular: Política de guerra a los Jefes”, 28 April 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 140-141.

138 José Martí, “Carta a Manuel Mercado”, 18 May 1895, in José Martí, Obras Completas, volume 4, 1975, Havana, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1991, p. 167-170.

139 Delfín Xiqués Cutiño, “Cuatro versiones sobre la muerte de José Martí”, Granma, 17 May 2019. http://www.granma.cu/hoy-en-la-historia/2019-05-17/cuatro-versiones-sobre-la-muerte-de-jose-marti-17-05-2019-15-05-58 (Accessed 13 September 2019).

140 República de Cuba, “Constitución de la República de Cuba”. http://www.cuba.cu/gobierno/cuba.htm (Accessed 31 August 2019).

141 Partido Comunista de Cuba, “Estatutos del PCC”. http://congresopcc.cip.cu/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/estatutos.pdf (Accessed 31 August 2019).

142 José Martí, “Versos Sencillos”, 1891, in José Martí, Obras completas, Edición Crítica, Havana, Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2007, volume 14, p. 303.

143 Gonzalo de Quesada, Así fue Martí, Havana, Editorial Gente Nueva, 1977, p. 93.

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Salim Lamrani, « José Martí, in the Name of Cuba »Études caribéennes [En ligne], 7 | Juillet 2021, mis en ligne le , consulté le 01 avril 2023. URL : http://journals.openedition.org/etudescaribeennes/24774 ; DOI : https://doi.org/10.4000/etudescaribeennes.24774

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