• 1 Kevin O’Donnell quoted in Returning to Ireland: The Generation Emigration Guide to Moving Home from (...)
• 2 Irial Glynn, Irish Emigration History, 2012, online on University College Cork website: https://www (...)
• 3 The global Irish diaspora has been estimated to be in the region of 70 million people (Department o (...)

1There are very few European countries that have been as affected by emigration over the last two centuries as Ireland. Since 1800, approximately ten million people have emigrated from the island.2 During her inaugural address in 1990, the then President of the Irish Republic, Mary Robinson, constructed the notion of an “Irish people” and an “Irish community” which stretched beyond the national boundaries of the state and the term “diaspora”3 (which is used to designate a group of people dispersed throughout the world and was once most commonly used to describe Jewish, Greek and Armenian dispersion) is now employed to describe the Irish experience.

• 4 Patrick Fitzgerald, Brian Lambkin, Migration in Irish History, 1607-2007, Basingstoke – New York, P (...)

2In 1995, President Robinson in her ground-breaking speech entitled “Cherishing the Irish Diaspora” evoked the importance of reaching out to Ireland’s vast global diaspora. Rather than forgetting about Irish emigrants and their descendants once they left Ireland, Robinson was proposing a new approach based on equality, respect and parity of esteem. This was to be achieved through constructive dialogue between homeland and diaspora and the development of a “non-territorial and post-nationalist Ireland”.4 The Amendment to Article 2 of the Irish Constitution, following the signing of the Good Friday Agreement in 1998, also recognised the special place of the Irish diaspora stating that, “the Irish nation cherishes its special affinity with people of Irish ancestry living abroad, who share its cultural identity and heritage”.

• 5 Celtic Tiger is the name given for the period of economic growth in Ireland (1995-2007).
• 6 Katy Hayward, Kevin Howard, “Cherry-Picking the Diaspora”, in Immigration and Social Change in the (...)
• 7 Department of Foreign Affairs, Ireland and the Irish Abroad. Report of the Task Force on Policy Reg (...)
• 8 For example, Global Irish Economic Forums were organised (https://www.dfa.ie/our-role-policies/our- (...)

3At the time of the Celtic Tiger,5 the Irish government reached out to this worldwide diaspora to fill labour shortages. A highly pro-active, global, multimillion-pound campaign “Jobs Ireland” (1998-2002) was organised through the National Training and Employment Agency (FÁS) to persuade people with skills to sell to relocate to Ireland. Katy Hayward and Kevin Howard have argued that the Irish government cherry-picked the type of person needed to fill the gaps in the labour market, and that this particular “type” was looked for in places as far away as Newfoundland, Sydney, Britain and South Africa, the aim being to entice “our” people to “come home”.6 In 2004, the Irish government included a chapter on returning Irish migrants in its Task Force report on Ireland and the Irish Abroad assessing potential impediments to return and focusing on the reintegration of elderly Irish people.7 However, with the onset of the recession, the Irish government’s interest in returning Irish migrants waned as it concentrated most of its efforts on harnessing the help of influential members of the diaspora to aid Irish economic recovery.8

• 9 Department of Foreign Affairs, Global Irish: Ireland’s Diaspora Policy, Dublin, Department of Forei (...)
• 10 Ibid., p. 46, 31.

4In 2015 the government began to take returning Irish migrants into account again by including them in a strategy document entitled Global Irish: Ireland’s Diaspora Policy, bringing those emigrants seeking to return to Ireland back into policy discussions once more. The Irish government committed itself to take account of the “needs of departing and returning emigrants and of the needs of second, third and subsequent generation Irish around the world”.9 An emphasis was placed on those returning emigrants with a “rich variety of talent and experience that can make an important contribution to Ireland”; it recognised “the increasing need to identify where administrative barriers might exist to Irish emigrants wishing to return” and that the “growing new challenge will be to facilitate, in practical ways, those that left Ireland and want to return home”.10 The Irish government was aware that barriers did exist for those Irish people coming back and that their reintegration into Ireland would need to be facilitated if their talent and experience were to contribute to the Irish economy and Irish society.

• 11 Jean-Pierre Cassarino, “Theorising Return Migration: The Conceptual Approach to Return Migrants Rev (...)
• 12 Neoclassical economics holds that return migration exclusively involves labour migrants who miscalc (...)
• 13 This is one of the criticisms which has been aimed at the neoclassical and NELM theories (Evija Kļa (...)
• 14 Ibid., p. 257.

5While research studies on the phenomenon of return migration and its impact on host countries can be found in the 1960s, it was not until the 1980s that real scientific debate occurred among scholars.11 Return migration has been theorised by various approaches originating from neoclassical economics, the new economics of labour migration (NELM), transnationalism, social network theory and structuralism. In simple terms, neoclassical economics and NELM concentrate mainly on the economic reasons for return and the transnationalist and social network theory on the exchanges that still persist between the returned migrant and the host country.12 The structural theory adds another dimension when explaining the return process and accords great importance to the elements of context in both the host and home country.13 This theory argues that return should not only be analysed with reference to the individual experience of the migrant, and not solely in economic terms, but also with reference to social and institutional factors in countries of origin: return is also a question of context.14 For the analysis of return migration to Ireland, the structural approach will be applied and will be used to assess the possible impediments encountered by the returnee once back in Ireland by comparing and contrasting the context, the “reality” of the home economy and society, with the expectations of the returned migrant.

• 15 Dick Foeken, “Return Migration to a Marginal Rural Area in North-Western Ireland”, Tijdschrift voor (...)
• 16 More recent research on return migration can be found in Irial Glynn, Tomás Kelly, Piaras MacÉinrí, (...)

7Research on return migration to Ireland has tended to mainly focus on the reasons why people left Ireland and how they adapted to their lives in their host country and on the exchanges and links between the island and its diaspora. With the exception of some publications on return emigration to Ireland in the 1980s and 1990s and during and after the Celtic Tiger period,15 there is a paucity of research on contemporary return migration to Ireland.16

• 17 Only emigrants who have returned by choice and not those returning in crisis will be examined in th (...)

8Return migration by Irish emigrants17 in recent years will be assessed in this article by discussing the context of life in Ireland for these returnees. The issues faced by these Irish people moving back and their experiences when trying to reintegrate into Irish society will be analysed by examining both the tangible and intangible barriers to settling back home. Returning emigrants have skills sets and experience that could benefit Ireland and Irish society but they may be up against obstacles preventing them from contributing positively once back in their home country.

• 18 Indecon International Economic Consultants, Indecon Economic Report on Addressing Challenges Faced (...)

9The principal data used for the analysis come from three main sources. One source is a report published in 2018 by Indecon International Economic Consultants and which was commissioned by the Irish government to examine the barriers to return of Irish people. This report proposes both quantitative and qualitative data: 1,188 emigrants took part in a detailed survey and provided individual insights into the practical realities facing returning emigrants.18

• 19 Crosscare, Home for Good? A Report on the Experiences of Recently Returned Irish Emigrants, Dublin, (...)
• 20 Returning to Ireland: The Generation Emigration Guide to Moving Home from Abroad, Ciara Kenny (ed.) (...)

10The findings of this report will be compared with those of the registered charity Crosscare in its 2017 report Home for Good?.19 A survey consisting of 23 questions was devised for online participation from Irish emigrants who returned from abroad in the previous two years and was completed when returnees left contact details at the end of the questionnaire. The report documents the responses of approximately 400 people. In addition, a guide, published in 2017 by The Irish Times newspaper as part of its Generation Emigration online blog, entitled Returning to Ireland: The Generation Emigration Guide to Moving Home from Abroad, which contains a series of articles written by returning Irish emigrants, will also be examined.20

• 21 Crosscare, Ní neart go cur le chéile. Irish Emigrant Community Experiences during the COVID-19 Pand (...)
• 22 Interview with Danielle McLaughlin, Irish Abroad Networking Officer, Crosscare, 25 May 2021.

11Finally, the context of the current global pandemic adds another layer of difficulty to the return process. Travel restrictions were introduced at the height of the pandemic and the freedom of movement had been curtailed for many Irish abroad. This has brought new types of obstacles for those Irish wishing to return and will be assessed through recent research (2021) completed by Crosscare on Irish emigrant community experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic.21 An interview the author carried out in 2021 with a member of the charity Crosscare discussing the issues that arose in this research will also be referred to.22

• 23 Caitríona Ní Laoire, “The ‘Green Green Grass of home’?…”, p. 333.
• 24 Catherine Piola, “Irish Post-Crisis Migratory and Demographic Patterns”, Études irlandaises, no. 40 (...)
• 25 Central Statistics Office, “Population and Migration Estimates”, April 2014, online: https://www.cs (...)

12Ireland was a country of net out-migration from the 1840s up to the 1960s with a brief respite during the 1970s when more people returned than left. The 1980s to the mid-1990s saw a return of large-scale emigration but during the Celtic Tiger period emigration decreased substantially. Between 1996 and 2005, approximately 221,000 Irish-born migrants returned to live in Ireland.23 Emigration rates increased again during the Irish economic downturn and, in 2008, approximately 50,000 Irish people left Ireland.24 From 2010 to 2020, the average annual outflow of Irish people was approximately 41,000 people.25

• 26 Indecon International Economic Consultants, Indecon Economic Report…, p. 11.
• 27 An example is bilateral social security agreements between Ireland and countries like Australia and (...)

14England and Wales, Australia, the United States and Canada are the countries of origin for 65 % of recent returned Irish emigrants.26 The country from which emigrants return, and if there are bilateral agreements in place or not, plays an important role in the potential obstacles encountered once back in Ireland.27 Returning from European Union countries proves less problematic.

• 28 Indecon International Economic Consultants, Indecon Economic Report…, p. 16.
• 29 Some Irish people do choose to retire in Ireland.

15Data from the Central Statistics Office for 2011 and 2016, which were analysed in the Indecon report on the challenges faced by returning Irish emigrants, show that nearly the same proportion of migrants returned in the 15-29 and 30-44 age group in 2011.28 However, in 2016 this changed slightly as more people in the 30-44 age group returned (nearly 7 % more than the younger group) with a proportion most probably returning with partners, spouses or children. Those older than 45 were less likely to return to Ireland, probably settled in their host countries at this stage.29

• 30 Indecon International Economic Consultants, Indecon Economic Report…, p. 25.
• 31 Crosscare, Home for Good?…, p. 8.

16The reasons given as to why Irish people wished to return to Ireland were varied but the main reason was for “family and friends”30 so emigrants could benefit from family and support networks not available to them abroad.31 The second reason was related to children and bringing them up in an Irish environment. This is more likely to concern the 30-44 age group. Other reasons were for education and bringing children up in the Irish education system, followed by those who stated their move abroad had only been temporary and others for employment opportunities in Ireland.

• 32 Emigrants returning from Canada and Australia have greater employment levels in the construction se (...)
• 33 Indecon International Economic Consultants, Indecon Economic Report…, p. 54.

18An essential requirement for many returning emigrants is the ability to secure employment in Ireland. Indecon’s survey of emigrants revealed a wide range of areas in which respondents to their survey were employed. Human health and social work activities was the largest sector, with 13.3 % of respondents working here. A slightly lower proportion of respondents worked in education (12.9 %), professional, scientific and technical activities (12.1 %), construction (11.5 %)32 or financial, insurance and real estate activities (11.2 %).33

• 34 Crosscare, Home for Good?…, p. 11.

19Identifying and securing suitable employment opportunities in Ireland was considered difficult. Other challenges like dealing with recruitment companies, short term contracts, wages, taxes, pensions for those retiring in Ireland, working hours and validating qualifications were also mentioned by returned Irish emigrants. Responses to the Crosscare survey referred to the length of time to secure employment as being problematic – “I couldn’t find a job for 18 months” – and difficulty finding full time permanent work, or employment as an older worker. Other respondents referred to location as an issue saying: “Outside of Dublin there aren’t many employment opportunities”. One remark in relation to self-employment stated that there was “very little support when we were trying to set up a business”.34

• 35 Indecon International Economic Consultants, Indecon Economic Report…, p. 57.
• 36 “Primary school teachers teach the range of primary school subjects to children aged 4 to 12 years. (...)
• 37 Crosscare, Home for Good?…, p. 10.

21The recognition of foreign qualifications was also raised by Irish people. This issue was brought up specifically in the areas of nursing, teaching, construction, and policing.35 In addition, a teacher who trained abroad, for example, would need a knowledge of the Irish language to teach at primary level in Ireland.36 One person, as part of the Crosscare study, experienced a delay of five months for official recognition of their qualification.37 This can delay finding employment and can be a weight on their finances. A returned emigrant would more than likely need to have savings to get through this waiting period.

• 38 Directive 2005/36/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 September 2005 on the recog (...)

22Those emigrants holding EU professional qualifications are more advantaged as European legislation covers the recognition of intra-EU professional qualifications.38 Ireland has a number of relevant “Competent Authorities” that determine a person’s ability to work in a professional field. This procedure can take time so returning emigrants may have to wait for a certain period before being able to apply for jobs or exercise their profession in Ireland.

• 40 The national minimum wage in Ireland is €10.50 per hour (https://www.citizensinformation.ie/en/empl (...)
• 41 https://www.numbeo.com/cost-of-living/in/Dublin

The increase in property prices reflects the housing shortage particularly in major urban centres in Ireland especially Dublin. Renting or purchasing accommodation is considered to be very difficult and costly by returning Irish emigrants. Rent in Dublin is approximately 22 % higher than in Paris and a one-bedroom apartment in Dublin costs on average 1,600 euros40 to rent.41 There are also strict Central Bank rules on lending and recently returned emigrants can have difficulties in obtaining a mortgage.

• 42 Returned Irish Emigrant in Crosscare, Home for Good?…, p. 12.

24Some returning Irish emigrants have problems getting their employment history recognised or getting their earnings from abroad taken into account when applying for a mortgage: “None of the banks would recognise my employment history or proof of ability to earn”.42

• 43 The Help to Buy incentive gives first-time buyers a refund of some of the income tax and DIRT (Depo (...)

25Many returning Irish emigrants are excluded from the “Help to Buy” initiative which provides a tax rebate for first-time purchasers to fund the deposit required to buy their home (newly built houses). A person is excluded from this if they have not paid tax in Ireland in the last four consecutive years and so a proportion of returning migrants is likely to be excluded from this initiative.43 It has been recommended that this programme be open to returning migrants who have paid tax in Ireland for four years at least in the last 14 or 15 years so as to give some opportunity to this group to save up for a deposit.

• 44 Most people who get a medical card in Ireland do so because their income is below a certain level. (...)
• 45 2.4 million people have private insurance in Ireland; average annual cost €2,000 (https://switcher. (...)
• 46 A visit to the doctor costs from €45-€70 (https://roxboromedical.ie/updates/cost-doctor-ireland); a (...)
• 47 https://www.hia.ie/consumer-information/waiting-periods/new-customer-waiting-periods

26In relation to health, Ireland has a two-tier public and private health system and the public health system44 is open to those “ordinarily” resident in Ireland (one year at least in the country).45 If you do not have the right to a medical card, healthcare in Ireland can be very expensive.46 Private health insurance is necessary due to the lengthy waiting periods in public hospitals for treatment but can be problematic to access for returning emigrants and can involve waiting periods during which a person is not covered. Insurers are entitled to impose a waiting period of a maximum of 26 weeks for new clients but there is a waiting period of 52 weeks imposed on maternity related benefits. However, if a person has a pre-existing condition, the person must wait for 5 years in order to be covered for any expenses incurred by this condition.47 A “Lifetime Community Rating” may also apply to returned emigrants as the premium that individuals pay for health insurance increases with the age at which they enter the private health insurance market. This could lead to returning emigrants having to pay more for private health insurance than if they had never left Ireland. People returning from countries with good healthcare may find re-entering the Irish system both challenging and expensive.

• 48 Mairead Cleary, “Dublin Parents Paying Highest Childcare Costs in Ireland at over €1,2000 per month (...)
• 49 https://www.gov.ie/en/press-release/675a67-minister-zappone-publishes-new-data-on-the-cost-of-early (...)
• 50 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Net Childcare Costs in EU countries. Impact (...)
• 51 Daniel McConnell, “Tax Breaks and Subsidies to Help Fund Childcare Cost”, Irish Independent, 13 Jan (...)

27As a number of returnees surveyed in the various reports decided to go back to live in Ireland to bring up children and if these children are in younger age groups, childcare costs need to be taken into consideration. The average cost of childcare in Ireland is around 746 euros per month (1,276 euros in Dublin).48 In 2019, Catherine Zappone, the former Minister for Children and Youth Affairs declared, “[…] the cost to families of early learning and care and school-age childcare remains higher in Ireland than in other OECD countries”.49 A major study carried out by the OECD in 2020 showed that a family in Ireland with two children spent 40 % of the average wage just to meet childcare costs.50 This compares with the OECD average of only 12 % and represents the highest cost of any of the OECD’s 34 members.51 Less than a third of children under three are enrolled in childcare facilities in Ireland, compared with a figure of 40 % in the United Kingdom and 50 % in France.

• 52 For more information see: https://www.citizensinformation.ie/en/education/pre_school_education_and_ (...)

28Even though some subsidies52 do exist to help with the costs of childcare in Ireland, the returning Irish emigrant may not be ready to assume these high costs along with all the other associated expenses of moving back to Ireland. If an Irish person is returning from Canada where childcare is expensive, the cost in Ireland may not be surprising but those coming back from certain EU countries such as France may not be prepared for such high rates.

• 53 The Education Act (1998) gives statutory rights to parents in relation to their children’s educatio (...)
• 54 Rónán Duffy, “Housing Crisis among Reasons Why Ring-Fencing School Places Is Wrong, Says Children’s (...)
• 55 Before 2019, schools could require children to be baptised but new legislation put an end to this “ (...)

29The Indecon report showed that 41 % of those emigrants surveyed had children under the age of 18, indicating that educational issues may impact a large proportion of the return population.53 Schools in Ireland have a degree of independence in relation to admissions. There is a shortage of places in some areas with long waiting lists (currently 25 % of school places can be held for the children and grandchildren of past pupils)54 and the learning of Irish is obligatory unless educated outside Ireland until age eleven. National schools are generally under the control of the Catholic Church and 90 % of the primary schools in Ireland have a Catholic ethos.55 This can cause a moral dilemma for returning migrants:

• 58 Peter McGuire, “Céad míle fáilte? Returning Irish Face College Fees of up to €22,000 a Year”, The I (...)

According to chief executive of Safe Home Ireland, Karen McHugh, many Irish people who were forced to leave during the recession and who were now coming back with their families were being deterred from doing so because of the fees issue: “It is obviously not affordable for many families, so they simply can’t come back, and the country is losing out on their valuable skill sets”.58

• 59 Indecon International Economic Consultants, Indecon Economic Report…, p. vii.

32Barriers to driving a car and obtaining insurance were seen by emigrants surveyed in the reports as among one of the most difficult barriers faced by many returning emigrants. Nearly 30 % of recently returned emigrants drive to work.59 The cost and delays in being able to drive was a major frustration for them and was likely to prevent many of them from securing employment. These included large numbers of skilled Irish emigrants in the construction sector who left during the property crash who would find it much more difficult to return to Ireland if there were barriers to their driving.

• 60 There is no set charge for Essential Driver Training lessons and each driving instructor sets their (...)
• 61 If it was issued by a country that is outside the European Union or European Economic Area, you can (...)

33The difficulties with obtaining a driver’s licence relate to emigrants from non-EU countries. Driver’s licences from EU/EEA countries and other recognised states can be exchanged for Irish licences. US driver’s licences are problematic and returning emigrants must complete a six lesson Essential Driver Training (EDT) course60 and take an Irish test.61 One emigrant noted:

• 64 In general, motor insurers will take into account a no claims history from the EEA and Switzerland, (...)
• 65 Central Bank statisticians say the cost of the average motor premium now is €653. That is a rise of (...)

A protocol agreed in 2017 between the Department of Finance and Insurance Ireland means that this is no longer the case and a no claims history is taken into account for specified countries.64 Insurance premiums however are generally higher than standard Irish rates for an equivalent driver if more than two years outside Ireland.65

• 66 Anders H. Stefansson, “Sarajevo Suffering: Homecoming and the Hierarchy of Homeland Hardship”, in H (...)
• 67 Return Migration and Psychosocial Wellbeing, Zana Vathi, Russell King (eds.), London, Routledge, 20 (...)
• 68 Anastasia Christou, Russell King, “Cultural Geographies of Counter-Diasporic Migration: Perspective (...)

35The emotional impact of returning to Ireland was brought up by emigrants in the Crosscare report and was described as a type of “culture shock” or “reverse culture shock”, a new incarnation of social marginalisation at “home” leading to countless practical and psychological problems.66 In the 2000s, major studies of return or “counter-diasporic” migration began to document the emotional complexities of the “return journey”.67 While expecting a “welcoming embrace”, the return might be a “rupture and disillusionment”.68 Subjectivity and the relational nature of migrants’ lives would appear to be almost completely ignored in policy-making on return.

• 69 Crosscare, Home for Good?…, p. 13.
• 70 Interview with Danielle McLaughlin.
• 71 Returning to Ireland: The Generation Emigration Guide…, p. 25.
• 72 Ibid., p. 13, 25.

36Many Irish people found it hard losing the social support networks they had built up abroad.69 This may be more of an “unexpected challenge” according to Danielle McLaughlin of Crosscare rather than a barrier per se but was mentioned by respondents.70 Networks had to be built up again and connections had to be made. For some, it was like emigrating again, a type of “migratory mourning” in reverse.71 The attitudes of Irish people were criticised also as being “pessimistic”: returned Irish emigrants found people “more closed and insular” and “patriarchal and conservative”; feelings were expressed on “acceptance” and people’s experiences of discrimination against their non-Irish born family members.72

• 73 Interview with Danielle McLaughlin.

37The “Irish way of doing things” was also mentioned as something negative as well as prejudice from employers and unacceptance of the change in a person’s accent. Other returned migrants were disappointed their adventure was over, of less exciting times ahead, and moving back to Ireland had an impact on their emotional well-being. Life was considered more mundane in Ireland compared to abroad. When emigrants went home on visits, everyone was excited to see them, there was a type of “holiday vibe” that wore off once the move was permanent.73

• 74 Shane O’Brien, “Irish Expats around the World Return Home during COVID-19 Pandemic”, Irish Central, (...)

38The most recent hurdle and a barrier to coming back to Ireland has been the COVID-19 pandemic that has affected the whole world and has invariably changed the way Irish emigrants think about Ireland. In 2020, the Central Statistics Office recorded the highest level of return migration for 13 years as Irish expats were faced with the economic repercussions of the pandemic on their employment abroad or an increased concern for family members in Ireland.74

• 75 Crosscare, Ní neart go cur le chéile…, p. 41.

39There were differences of the impact of COVID-19 depending on where people lived, their age group and professions and their immigrant status in their host country. In the United States for example, Irish people were severely affected in the hospitality and service industries plus the undocumented Irish emigrants with no access to entitlements or supports like unemployment benefits during the lockdowns. Temporary visa holders in the United States, Canada and Australia who lost their jobs during the pandemic were not entitled to unemployment benefits either.75 This age group was generally made up of younger adults on summer work visas and graduate visas in the United States or Canada, or the 18-35 category temporary visa workers in Australia.

• 77 Crosscare, Ní neart go cur le chéile…, p. 5.

41Many Irish people were left with little choice but to return to Ireland because of their problematic financial situation or immigrant status even if they had not planned on returning before the outbreak of the virus. Crosscare in its work supporting Irish emigrants during the height of the pandemic concluded that approximately 50 % of their clients clearly stated that the “COVID-19 pandemic” was the reason for their return to Ireland.77 Those that were more settled abroad but decided to go back to Ireland were faced with much upheaval, uprooting their lives and families to return to Ireland permanently.

• 78 Irish Canadian Immigration Centre, quoted in Crosscare, Ní neart go cur le chéile…, p. 48.

42Access to and delivery of public services will be important for these returning migrants. An employee of the Irish Canadian Immigration Centre was quoted as saying, “the going, the returning… it’ll bring up a lot of mental health [problems] I think, and also in terms of what services will be needed on the Irish side for those returning”.78 Further research will be needed to assess the impact on family life, identity, belonging and mental health.

• 79 Department of Foreign Affairs, Global Ireland: Ireland’s Diaspora Strategy, 2020-2025, Dublin, Depa (...)
• 80 Department of Foreign Affairs, Global Irish: Ireland’s Diaspora Policy, p. 46.

45While the Irish government reached out to its diaspora during the Celtic Tiger period when labour shortages occurred especially in the more skilled fields such as the information technology sector, returning Irish emigrants or those of Irish descent were cherry-picked and very much appreciated for what they could bring to Ireland through their experience and skills base. Since the end of the Celtic Tiger and the recession that followed with the collapse of the Irish property bubble and the bailout of several banks by the government, return migration to Ireland has taken a backseat in public discourses and policies. However, the issue of returning to Ireland was included in both the 2015 and 202079 policy documents on Ireland’s diaspora. Returning emigrants were recognised as bringing skills and knowledge that could help develop both the national and local economies and the challenges faced by individuals and families returning to Ireland were also acknowledged.80 Many problems persist nevertheless for returnees and progress in lifting remaining barriers has been slow.

• 81 Department of Foreign Affairs, Global Ireland: Ireland’s Diaspora Strategy, 2020-2025, p. 11.

46It is noteworthy nevertheless that in the 2015 document, only one page was dedicated to return migration and half a page in the 2020 policy document.81 The 2020 policy document shows a greater interest in developing mutually beneficial links with the worldwide diaspora, promoting Irish values abroad, supporting cultural expression among the diaspora and enhancing the reputation of Ireland abroad than on return Irish emigrants. The Irish government is still looking outward more than it is looking inward.