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Notes
“The Latest: Argentine President Reacts to Bike Path Attack,” https://www.usnews.com/news/best-states/new-york/articles/2017-11-01/the-latest-argentine-president-reacts-to-bike-path-attack, last accessed 1 April, 2018.
“In New York the Deadliest Terrorist Attack Since 9/11 Stirs Old Memories and Strengthens Resolve,” https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/in-new-york-the-deadliest-terrorist-attack-since-911-stirs-old-memories-and-strengthens-resolve/2017/11/01/b6cdaf62-bf39-11e7-97d9-bdab5a0ab381_story.html?utm_term=.370316bc4780, last accessed 1 April 2018.
Frances Martel, “Argentina, Home to Deadliest Jihad in Hemisphere Before 9/11, Struck Again in NYC,” http://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2017/11/01/argentina-home-worst-terror-attack-hemisphere-911-struck-nyc/, last accessed 1 April 2018.
Calling something “terrorism” is not necessarily a means of identification of a plain thing, but instead a discourse of power that happens to be very useful for governments to frame their wars as something for the common good. Once a government is going after “terrorists” it is much easier to justify physical force, the suspension of rules of war, and blatant crimes against humanity. See “The Secular Roots of Radical Political Islam An Essay by Mahmood Mamdani," http://www.middleeasteye.net/essays/how-terrorism-useful-our-governments-112174807, last accessed 1 April 2018.
Or its euphemisms like, “'Overseas Contingency Operation'". http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/03/24/AR2009032402818.html, last accessed 1 April 2018.
Karim Bahgat and Richard M. Medina, “An Overview of Geographical Perspectives and Approaches in Terrorism Research”, Perspectives on Terrorism 7-1 (2013), pp. 38-72.
Michael Chandler and Rohan Gunaratna, Countering Terrorism: Can We Meet the Threat of Global Violence?, London, Reaktion Books, 2007, p. 13.
M. Chandler and R. Gunaratna, Countering Terrorism …, p. 14.
Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order, New York, Simon and Schuster, 2002.
Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man, New York, Free Press, 1992.
Jasmin Zine, “Unsettling the Nation: Gender, Race and Muslim Cultural Politics in Canada”, in Islam in the Hinterlands: Muslim Cultural Politics in Canada, ed. Jasmin Zine, Vancouver, UBC Press, 2012, p. 43.
J. Zine, “Unsettling the Nation ...”, p. 272.
Jeremy Kryt, “Inside the ISIS Plot to Kill Americans in Colombia,” https://amp.thedailybeast.com/inside-the-isis-terror-plot-to-kill-us-diplomats-in-colombia, last accessed 7 April, 2018.
We will discuss the Triple Frontier region and its role in the discourse surrounding the global “War on Terror” later in the article, in the section on Argentina.
CNN, “Full Transcript of CNN National Security Debate,” November 22, 2011 http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/1111/22/se.o6.html, last accessed 7 March 2018.
Idem.
Greg Grandin, “About Those Islamist Sleeper Cells in South America…,” https://www.thenation.com/article/about-those-islamist-sleeper-cells-in-south-america/, last accessed 11 April 2018.
See James L. Dietz, “Destabilization and Intervention in the Caribbean”, Latin American Perspectives 11-3 (1984), pp. 3-14.
Gordon Connell-Smith, The United States and Latin America, London, Heinemann Educational Books, 1974, p. 62.
Ronald Guy Emerson, “Radical Neglect? The ‘War on Terror’ and Latin America”, Latin American Politics and Society 52-1 (2010), pp. 33-62.
Curtis Connell, Understanding Islam and its Impact on Latin America, Maxwell Air Force Base, AL, Air Force Fellows, 2005, p. 30.
Robert Singer, "With roots in Latin America, Hezbollah is the real terror threat in our hemisphere,” The Miami Herald, May 10, 2018, https://www.miamiherald.com/opinion/op-ed/article210889749.html#storylink=cpy, accessed October 1, 2018.
Emanuele Ottolenghi, "Hezbollah in Latin America is a threat the US cannot ignore,” The Hill, https://thehill.com/blogs/pundits-blog/homeland-security/337299-hezbollah-in-latin-america-is-a-security-threat-the-us, accessed October 1, 2018.
Jason Kopp, "As Islamic extremism grows in Latin America, some want Trump to take action,” Fox News, April 25, 2018, https://www.foxnews.com/us/as-islamic-extremism-grows-in-latin-america-some-want-trump-to-take-action, accessed October 1, 2018.
Idem.
Christopher Sabatini, "Is there a credible Islamist threat in Latin America?”, The Christian Science Monitor, January 29, 2017 https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Americas/Latin-America-Monitor/2017/0129/Is-there-a-credible-Islamist-threat-in-Latin-America, accessed October 2, 2018.
Michael Webster, “Hezbollah and Mexica Drug Cartels Operating in Mexico and U.S.”, http://banderasnews.com/0810/edat-mexhezbollah.htm, last accessed 11 April 2018.
“10 more criminal cases that highlight Islamic terror threat at US-Mexico border,” https://creepingsharia.wordpress.com/2017/01/30/10-cases-border-terror/, last accessed 7 April 2018.
See James Hill, “Building Security Cooperation in the Western Hemisphere,” remarks at North-South Center, 3 March 2003, http://www.iwar.org.uk/news-achieve/2003/03-12/htm, accessed October 1, 2018; Jenny Falcon, “US Official: Al-Qaeda, Drug Traffickers May Establish Ties”, Voice of America 2 (2004); and the fictional account of drug-drug-traffickers and "jihadists" working together in Steven Seagal and Tom Morrisey, The Way of the Shadow Wolves: The Deep State and the Hijacking of America, Phoenix, AZ, Fifth Palace Publishing, 2017. This last text received stated approval as a “hair's breadth from the truth” by then Senate candidate, Trump ally, and former Maricopa County Sheriff Joe Arpaio.
John Tofik Karam, “Crossing the Americas: The U.S. War on Terror and Arab Cross-Border Mobilizations in a South American Frontier Region”, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa, and the Middle East 31-2 (2011), pp. 251-266.
Jerry Haar, “Radical Islam’s Latin American connection,” http://www.miamiherald.com/opinion/op-ed/article46127140.html, last accessed 17 March 2018.
Though, that does not stop some from compiling “case files” https://creepingsharia.wordpress.com/2017/01/30/10-cases-border-terror/, last accessed 7 April 2018.
R. Evan Ellis, “Radical Islam in Latin America and the Caribbean: Implications for U.S. National Security,” http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a618995.pdf, last accessed 19 March 2018.
C. Connell, Understanding Islam …, p. VI.
R. E. Ellis, “Radical Islam in Latin America and the Caribbean …”, p. 9.
C. Connell, Understanding Islam …, p. VI.
“Islam and the Global War on Terrorism in Latin America,” http://www.pewforum.org/2006/04/06/islam-and-the-global-war-on-terrorism-in-latin-america/, last accessed 28 April 2018.
Jerusa Ali, “Bahamian and Brazilian Muslimahs: Struggle for Identity and Belonging,” in Islam and the Americas, ed. Aisha Khan, Gainesville, University Press of Florida, 2015, p. 197.
Fitra Ismu Kusumo, Islam en América Latina. Tomo II: Migración Árabe a América Latina, Ciudad de México, Rumah Jade Production, 2013.
Edward Said, Orientalism, New York, Vintage Books, 1978.
See Eduardo Mendieta, "Ni Orientalismo ni Occidentalismo: Edward W. Said y el Latinoamericanismo”, Tabula Rasa 5 (2006), pp. 67-83; Emmanuel Taub, Otredad, orientalidad e identidad: Nociones sobre la construcción de un otro oriental en la revista Caras y Caretas. 1898-1918, Buenos Aires, Teseo, 2008.
See Silvia Nagy-Zekmi, ed., Moros en la Costa: Orientalismo en Latinoamérica, Madrid: Iberoamericana, 2008; Rukhsana Qamber, “Anti-Islamic Bias in Sources on Latin America: Preliminary Findings”, Islamic Studies 42 (2003), pp. 651-685 and “Inquisition Proceedings against Muslims in 16th Century Latin America”, Islamic Studies 45 (2006), pp. 21-57; and Mikaela Rogozen-Soltar, “Managing Muslim Visibility: Conversion, Immigration, and Spanish Imaginaries of Islam”, American Anthropologist 114 (2012), pp. 611-623.
For example Juan F. Caraballo-Resto’s thesis at the University of Puerto Rico, “Palestinian Muslims as a ‘Middle-Man Minority Group’ in San Juan, Puerto Rico”, San Juan, University of Puerto Rico, 2003.
Ian Bremmer, "The Top 5 Countries Where ISIS Gets Its Foreign Recruits,” http://time.com/4739488/isis-iraq-syria-tunisia-saudi-arabia-russia/, last accessed 28 April 2018.
Richard Florida, “The Geography of Foreign ISIS Fighters,” https://www.citylab.com/equity/2016/08/foreign-fighters-isis/493622/, last accessed 28 April 2018.
Frances Robles, “Trying to Stanch Trinidad’s Flow of Young Recruits to ISIS,” https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/21/world/americas/trying-to-stanch-trinidads-flow-of-young-recruits-to-isis.html, last accessed 28 April 2018.
John McCoy and W. Andy Knight, “Homegrown Violent Extremism in Trinidad and Tobago: Local Patterns, Global Trends”, Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 40-4 (2017), pp. 267-299.
Simon Cottee, “ISIS in the Caribbean,” https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2016/12/isis-trinidad/509930/, last accessed 28 April 2018.
“Official Statement of Dr. Bilal Philips on his Arrest in Phillippines,” https://muslimmatters.org/2014/09/13/official-statement-bilal-philips-arrest-philippines/, last accessed 28 April 2018.
Idem, 120ff.
See Michael Weiss, ISIS: Inside the Army of Terror, New York, Regan Arts, 2016, p. 170.
While Wiktoriwicz wrote that Salafis are unified around a core creed that includes, “strict adherence to the concept of tawhid (the oneness of God) and ardent rejection of a role for human reason, logic, and desire,” strict adherence to “the rules and guidance in the Qur’an and Sunna” and a yearning for eliminating “the biases of human subjectivity and self-interest” they have also divided into three major factions according to different contextual situations: purists, politicos, and jihadis. See Quintan Wiktoriwicz, “Anatomy of the Salafi Movement”, Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 29 (2006), pp. 207-239.
During my fieldwork in June 2017 I spoke with two imams in Puerto Rico who were about to go to Trinidad to discuss the rise of Salafism in the Caribbean. I helped them prepare information and statistics on the various Muslim communities in the Caribbean including Puerto Rico, Cuba, Jamaica, Trinidad, and elsewhere. Our conversations and mutual research helped inform these estimates.
Mohamed-Ali Adraoui, “Salafism in France: Ideology, Practices and Contradictions”, in Global Salafism: Islam’s New Religious Movement, ed. Roel Meijer, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2013, p. 366.
Terje Østebø, “Muslim Protests in Ethiopia,” Lecture, University of Bergen, December 12, 2013.
“Caribbean to Caliphate,” https://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/peopleandpower/2017/05/caribbean-caliphate-170517073332147.html, last accessed 28 April 2018.
Cf. Jeanne Baptiste, “More than Dawud and Jalut: Decriminalizing the Jamaat al Muslimeen and Madressa in Trinidad”, in Islam in the Americas, ed. Aisha Khan, Gainesville, University Press of Florida, 2015, pp. 269-295.
Mahmood Mamdani, “Good Muslim, Bad Muslim: A Political Perspective on Culture and Terrorism”, American Anthropologist 104-3, 2002, pp. 766-775.
“Fear and Islam in Trinidad,” https://dialogo-americas.com/en/articles/fear-and-islam-trinidad, last accessed 28 April 2018.
“Dābiq Magazine Issue #5,” http://jihadology.net/category/dabiq-magazine/, last accessed 28 April 2018.
S. Cottee, “ISIS in the Caribbean.”
Sanjay Badri-Maharaj, “Globalization of the Jihadist Threat: Case Study of Trinidad and Tobago”, Strategic Analysis 14-2 (2017), pp. 173-189.
Raoul A. Pantin, Days of Wrath: The 1990 Coup in Trinidad and Tobago, Lincoln, iUniverse, 2007, p. X.
Prea Persaud, “Islam in Trinidad”, in Encyclopedia of Latin American Religions, ed. Henri Gooren, Berlin, Springer, 2019.
R. Pantin, Days of Wrath …, p. 145.
Chris Searle, “The Muslimeen Insurrection in Trinidad”, Race & Class 33-2 (1991), pp. 29-43.
See P. Persaud, “Islam in Trinidad”.
C. Searle, “The Muslimeen Insurrection ...”, p. 41.
R. Pantin, Days of Wrath …, p. 154.
Danny Gold, “The Islamic Leader Who Tried to Overthrow Trinidad Has Mellowed…a Little,”https://news.vice.com/article/the-islamic-leader-who-tried-to-overthrow-trinidad-has-mellowed-a-little, last accessed 7 April 2018.
“I’m no ISIS Point Man: Yasim Abu Bakr,” https://www.trinidadexpress.com/news/im-no-isis--point-man-279688692.html, last accessed 7 April 2018.
S. Cottee, “ISIS in the Caribbean.”
Roel Meijer, “Introduction”, in Global Salafism: Islam’s New Religious Movement, ed. Roel Meijer, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2013, p. 29.
Jeevan Deol and Zaheer Kazmi, eds., Contextualizing Jihadi Though, New York, Columbia University Press, 2011, p. 11.
Pedro Brieger and Enrique Herskowich, “The Muslim Community of Argentina”, The Muslim World 91-1 (2002).
P. Brieger and E. Herskowich, “The Muslim Community …”.
Judith Laikin Elkin, The Jews of Latin America, Boulder and London, Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2014.
See earlier Breitbart report.
Harriett Alexander, “The Buenos Aires bomb, the Iranian allegations, and the accusations against Cristina Kirchner,” https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/southamerica/argentina/11356031/The-Buenos-Aires-bomb-the-Iranian-allegations-and-the-accusations-against-Cristina-Kirchner.html, last accessed 28 April 2018.
Frud Bezhan, “Explainer: Iran's Alleged Part In 1994 Bombing Of Buenos Aires Jewish Center,” https://www.rferl.org/a/iran-argentina-bombing-jewish/25004062.html, last accessed 28 April 2018.
Frances Martel, “‘Islamic Fundamentalists Killed Nisman’: Argentina Reacts to New 100-Page Prosecutor Investigation,” http://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2015/03/06/islamic-fundamentalists-killed-nisman-argentina-reacts-to-new-100-page-prosecutor-investigation/, last accessed 28 April 2018.
Mark Dubowitz and Toby Dershowitz, “Iranian Terror. Argentinian Cover Up. Justice at Last?”, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/11/opinion/argentina-kirchner-iran-nisman.html, last accessed 28 April 2018.
“Argentina co-sponsors memorial for attack on Israeli embassy,” http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/243324, last accessed 28 April 2018.
Omri Elmaleh, “The Lebanese-Muslim Diaspora in the Triple Frontier (Argentina, Brazil and Paraguay)”, in Encyclopedia of Latin American Religions, ed. Henri Gooren, Berlin, Springer, 2017.
Mike Fleming Jr. “‘Triple Frontier’ Finally Going: Affleck, Isaac, Pascal, Hunnam, Hedlund, Arjona In JC Chandor’s Lineup,” http://deadline.com/2018/03/triple-frontier-movie-ben-affleck-oscar-isaac-pedro-pascal-charlie-hunnam-garrett-hedlund-adria-arjona-jc-chandor-netflix-1202345230/, last accessed 28 April 2018.
“Triple Frontier,” http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1488606/, last accessed 7 April, 2018.
John Tofik Karam, “Crossing the Americas: The U.S. War on Terror and Arab Cross-Border Mobilizations in a South American Frontier Region”, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 31-2 (2011), pp. 251-266.
See M. David Sills and Kevin Baggett in their esssay “Islam in Latin America” (Southern Baptist Journal of Theology 15-2 (2011), pp. 28-41) in which they claim that the Tres Fronteras region is Hezbollah’s “Latin American headquarters” and that the two attacks in Argentina operated out of the Tres Fronteras region.
C. Connell, Understanding Islam …, p. 32.
John Tofik Karam, “Anti-Semitism from the Standpoint of its Arab Victims in a South American Border Zone”, Latin American and Caribbean Ethnic Studies 6-2 (2011), pp. 143-167.
Christina Civantos, Between Argentines and Arabs: Argentine Orientalism, Arab Immigrants, and the Writing of Identity, Albany, NY, State University of New York Press, 2006.
Kevin Funk, “A Political Economy of Arab-Latin American Relations: Notes and Theoretical Reflections from within the ‘American Social Science’ of IR”, FLACSO-ISA Joint International Conference July 23-25, 2014 Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Frederick Jackson Turner, “The Significance of the Frontier in American History,” a paper read at the meeting of the American Historical Association in Chicago, 12 July 1893, during the World Columbian Exposition.
Patricia Nelson Limerick, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West, New York, Norton and Company, 1987.
See S. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations.
C. Connell, Understanding Islam …, p. 24.
C. Connell, Understanding Islam …, p. 51.
C. Connell, Understanding Islam …, p. 31.
Facebook Post, March 9, 8:44am.
Erik Camayd-Freixas, Orientalism and Identity in Latin America Fashioning Self and Other from the (Post)Colonial Margin, Tucson, University of Arizona Press, 2013.
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