Bibliographie
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Berry, Gérard, Pourquoi et comment le monde devient numérique, Paris, Fayard, 2008.
Bruns, Axel, Blogs, Wikipedia, Second Life, and Beyond. From Production to Produsage, New York, Peter Lang, 2008.
Conner, Thomas H., Rei Toei Lives! Hatsune Miku and the Design of the Virtual Pop Star, Thesis, Chicago, University of Illinois at Chicago, 2014.
Galbraith, Patrick W., The Otaku Encyclopedia. An Insider’s Guide to the Subculture of Cool Japan, New York, Kodansha, 2014, p. 154-156.
Guga, Jelena, “Virtual idol Hatsune Miku, new auratic experience of the performer as a collaborative platform,” in Brooks, Anthony Lewis, Ayiter, Elif and Yazicigil, Onur (eds.), Arts and Technology. ArtsIT 2014. Lecture Notes of the Institute for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering, vol. 145, Springer, Cham, 2015, p. 36-44. [Online] https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-18836-2_5 [accessed 29 June 2021].
Hamasaki, Masahiro, Takeda, Hideaki and Nishimura, Takuichi, “Analysis of massively collaborative creation on multimedia contents: Case study of Hatsune Miku videos on Nico Nico Douga,” UXTV ’08 Proceedings, 2008, p. 165-168. [Online] https://doi.org/10.1145/1453805.1453838 [accessed 29 June 2021].
Horton, Donald and Wohl, R. Richard, “Mass communication and para-social interaction, observations on intimacy at a distance,” Psychiatry Interpersonal and Biological Processes, vol. 19, 1956.
Karakas, Fahri, “Welcome to World 2.0: the new digital ecosystem,” Journal of Business Strategy, vol. 30, no. 4, 2009, p. 23-30. [Online] https://doi.org/10.1108/02756660910972622 [accessed 29 June 2021].
Khamis, Susie, Ang, Lawrence and Welling, Raymond, “Self-branding, ‘micro-celebrity’ and the rise of social media influencers,” Celebrity Studies, vol. 8, no. 2, 2017, p. 191-208. [Online] https://doi.org/10.1080/19392397.2016.1218292 [accessed 29 June 2021].
Kobayashi, Hajime and Taguchi, Takashi, “Virtual idol Hatsune Miku: Case study of new production/consumption phenomena generated by network effects in Japan’s online environment,” Markets, Globalization & Development Review, vol. 3, no. 4, 2018. [Online] https://doi.org/10.23860/MGDR-2018-03-04-03 [accessed 29 June 2021].
Lam, Ka Yan, “The Hatsune Miku phenomenon: More than a virtual J‐Pop diva,” The Journal of Popular Culture, Special Issue: Asian Popular Culture, vol. 49, no. 5, 2016, p. 1107-1124. [Online] https://doi.org/10.1111/jpcu.12455 [accessed 29 June 2021].
Lamerichs, Nicolle, “The next wave in participatory culture: Mixing human and nonhuman entities in creative practices and fandom,” The Future of Fandom, special 10th anniversary issue, Transformative Works and Cultures, no. 28, 2018. [Online] http://dx.doi.org/10.3983/twc.2018.1501 [accessed 29 June 2021].
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Le, Linh K., “Examining the rise of Hatsune Miku: The first international virtual idol,” UCI Undergraduate Research Journal, 2014. [Online] http://www.urop.uci.edu/journal/journal13/01_le.pdf [accessed 29 June 2021].
Mounaim, L’Houssaine and Tighazri Safaa, “Transformation digitale et révolution expérientielle, esquisse d’un nouveau monde de consommation à l’ère du Phygital,” International Journal of Management Sciences, vol. 3, no. 2, January 2021. [Online] https://www.revue-isg.com/index.php/home/article/view/464 [accessed 29 June 2021].
Nordgren, Sofia and Molin, Victoria, A Robot or Human? The Marketing Phenomenon of Virtual Influencers. A Case Study About Virtual Influencers’ Parasocial Interaction on Instagram, Uppsala, Uppsala University, 2019. [Online] http://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1334486/FULLTEXT01.pdf [accessed 29 June 2021].
Provenzano, Catherine, “Making voices: The gendering of pitch correction and the auto-tune effect in contemporary pop music,” Journal of Popular Music Studies, vol. 31, 2019, p. 63-84. [Online] https://doi.org/10.1525/jpms.2019.312008 [accessed 29 June 2021].
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Stein, Louisa et al., “Spreadable media: Creating value and meaning in a networked culture,” Cinema Journal, Project MUSE, vol. 53, no. 3, 2014, p. 152-177. [Online] https://doi:10.1353/cj.2014.0021 [accessed 29 June 2021].
Taneska, Biljana Kochoska, The First Sound from the Future Plays Some Peculiar Melody. Virtual Singer Hatsune Miku-Cyber Entity Conquering the Popular Culture, New York, University of New York, 2010.
Utz, Christian and Lau, Frederick, Vocal Music and Contemporary identities. Unlimited Voices in East Asia and the West, New York, Routledge, 2013.
Yin, Yiyi, “Vocaloid in China: Cosmopolitan music, cultural expression, and multilayer identity,” Global Media and China, vol. 3, no. 1, 2018, p. 51-66. [Online] https://www.10.1177/2059436418778600 [accessed 29 June 2021].
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Notes
Fahri Karakas, “Welcome to World 2.0: The new digital ecosystem,” Journal of Business Strategy, vol. 30, no. 4, 2009, p. 23-30.
Gérard Berry, Pourquoi et comment le monde devient numérique, Paris, Fayard, 2008.
Deepfake is an artificial-intelligence-based image synthesis technique. It is used to superimpose existing audio and video files onto other videos. The term “deepfake” is a portmanteau of “deep learning” and “fake.”
Ben Robinson, “Towards an Ontology and Ethics of Virtual Influencers,” Australasian Journal of Information Systems, vol. 24, 2020.
The term refers to a type of video-based blogging in which users film themselves while addressing the camera.
The Moe style is a cute “kawaii” aesthetics pushed to the extreme, in fashion in the Japanese entertainment industry since the years 2000. This element of Japanese vernacular refers to strong feelings of affection for fictional characters from the worlds of anime, manga, and video games. But the term can also refer to feelings of affection for any subject. See Patrick W. Galbraith, The Otaku Encyclopedia. An Insider’s Guide to the Subculture of Cool Japan, New York, Kodansha USA, 2014, p. 154-156.
Biljana Kochoska Taneska, The First Sound from the Future Plays Some Peculiar Melody. Virtual Singer Hatsune Miku – Cyber Entity Conquering the Popular Culture, University of New York, 2010.
L’Houssaine Mounaim and Safaa Tighazri, “Transformation digitale et révolution expérientielle, esquisse d’un nouveau monde de consommation à l’ère du Phygital,” International Journal of Management Sciences, vol. 3, no. 2, January 2021.
The Musical Instrument Digital Interface, or MIDI, is a communication protocol as well as a file format dedicated to electronic music. It allows communication between electronic instruments, controllers, sequencers, and music software.
Catherine Provenzano, “Making voices: The gendering of pitch correction and the auto-tune effect in contemporary pop music,” Journal of Popular Music Studies, vol. 31, 2019, p. 63-84.
In an interview called “What Does Hatsune Miku Embody? The Vision of Wataru Sasaki,” published in The Japan Foundation, Performing Arts Network Japan (2018), the creator of the music software personified by Hatsune Miku explained the origins of the artificial voice: “To make a Vocaloid, you begin by recording a human voice, and then you have to piece them together in a patchwork. It would sound strange if I used the term ‘the voice of a dead person,’ but what you have to do is peel away the parts that sound like they were once human. Like the dry contents of a cup of instant noodles, you have to get it down to something that sounds dry, without a sense of the living flesh and blood. In other words, you get it down to something simple that has nothing left of a person’s voice or emotions, and then like adding hot water to bring the noodles back to their original moist start, you have to put life back into it.”
Melissa Avdeeff, “Artificial intelligence & popular music: SKYGGE, Flow machines, and the audio uncanny valley,” Arts, vol. 8, no. 8, 2019, p. 130.
Casey Ashton and Hatsune Miku, Slinger, Daisy 2.0, Parlophone, Warner, 2020. [Online] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eVOWYeZm9v8 [accessed 29 June 2021].
Christine Lavrence and Carolina Cambre, “‘Do I look like my selfie?’: Filters and the digital-forensic gaze,” Social Media + Society, vol. 6 no. 4, 2020.
This passage draws on Ingrid Hoelzl (who in turn draws on John Dewey) to differentiate between simple interaction, which takes place between two preformed entities, and transaction, in which the relationship taking place between two entities contributes to their mutual reconfiguration. See Ingrid Hoelzl, “L’image-transaction. What you see is not what you get,” Multitudes, no. 77, 2019, p. 129-140.
Born in 2016, Miquela Sousa describes herself as an “inclusive, Brazilian-Spanish, change-seeking robot” advocating social equality, #BlackLivesMatter, trans women’s rights, and equal pay for women. In June 2018, she was the first virtual influencer to be listed among Times’ “25 most influential people on the Internet.” In 2020, this fembot’s income was estimated at over 10 million dollars, at a time when the COVID-19 pandemic curbed most human activities. In February 2021, she had over 3 million followers on Instagram.
Susie Khamis, Lawrence Ang and Raymond Welling, “Self-branding, ‘micro-celebrity’ and the rise of social media influencers,” Celebrity Studies, vol. 8, no. 2, 2017, p. 191-208.
Donald Horton and R. Richard Wohl, “Mass communication and para-social interaction, observations on intimacy at a distance,” Psychiatry Interpersonal and Biological Processes, vol. 19, 1956.
Sofia Nordgren and Victoria Molin, A Robot or Human? The Marketing Phenomenon of Virtual Influencers. A Case Study About Virtual Influencers’ Parasocial Interaction on Instagram, Uppsala, Uppsala University, 2019. [Online] http://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1334486/FULLTEXT01.pdf [accessed 29 June 2021].
Crypton Future Media Inc. is a Japanese corporation based in Sapporo, Hokkaido. It produces and markets sound banks and voice synthesizer software based on the Vocaloid technology. Its software is personified by several virtual avatars, with Hatsune Miku as their figurehead.
Hajime Kobayashi and Takashi Taguchi, “Virtual idol Hatsune Miku: Case study of new production/consumption phenomena generated by network effects in Japan’s online environment,” Markets, Globalization & Development Review, vol. 3, no. 4, 2018.
Ana Matilde Sousa, “Beauty is in the eye of the ‘produser’: Japan’s virtual idol Hatsune Miku from software, to network, to stage,” Post Screen: Intermittence + Interference, 2016, p. 117-128.
PIAPRO is a collaborative website dedicated to Vocaloid, where users can share and remix their music, illustrations, lyrics, and 3D models.
Fanart refers to any artwork produced by a fan and inspired by (or reproducing) one or several of the fictional characters of an existing artwork. Fanart can be literary, pictorial, or audiovisual.
Hatsune Miku’s fanbase regularly organizes amateur virtual concerts, like Hatsune Miku Live held at the Motsukora Con XVII festival in Spain, in 2015. The choreography, songs, staging, and activation of Hatsune Miku are made possible thanks to her fans’ direct involvement , who use the same technologies developed by Crypton Future Media Inc. for official concerts.
Launched in December 2006, the Japanese website Nico Nico Douga is a video sharing platform. One of its distinctive features is the possibility to overlay comments onto the user window: users can superimpose the video and their own comments (called bullet comments) in real time and in a personalized way. This function enhances feelings of immersion and community among users.
Launched in May 1999, 2channel is the main textboard website in Japan. A textboard is an anonymous Bulletin Board System (BBS) forum. 2channel’s worldwide success led to creation of 4chan in the US.
Masahiro Hamasaki, Hideaki Takeda and Takuichi Nishimura, “Analysis of massively collaborative creation on multimedia contents: Case study of Hatsune Miku videos on Nico Nico Douga,” UXTV ’08 Proceedings, 2008, p. 165-168.
Alvin Toffler referred to ‘prosumers’ in his 1980 best-seller The Third Wave (William Morrow Editions, New York). Forty years later, Hatsune Miku’s success prompted a change in the audience initially targeted (professional musicians and producers), with a shift towards amateur produsers: “the users turned creators and distributors of content.” Axel Bruns, Blogs, Wikipedia, Second Life, and Beyond. From Production to Produsage, New York, Peter Lang, 2008.
Lady Gaga announced on Twitter: “My favorite digital pop star Hatsune Miku is opening The ARTPOP Ball from May 6-June 3!,” April 15, 2014.
Thomas H. Conner, Rei Toei Lives! Hatsune Miku and the Design of the Virtual Pop Star, Chicago University of Illinois, Chicago, 2014.
Louisa Stein et al., “Spreadable media: Creating value and meaning in a networked culture,” Cinema Journal, vol. 53, no. 3, 2014, p. 152-177.
Yiyi Yin, “Vocaloid in China: Cosmopolitan music, cultural expression, and multilayer identity,” Global Media and China, vol. 3, no. 1, 2018, p. 51-66.
Christian Utz and Frederick Lau, Vocal Music and Contemporary Identities. Unlimited Voices in East Asia and the West, New York, Routledge, 2013.
Hajime Kobayashi and Takashi Taguchi, “Virtual idol Hatsune Miku: Case study of new production/consumption phenomena generated by network effects in Japan’s online environment,” Markets, Globalization & Development Review, vol. 3, no. 4, 2018.
In February 2021, Vtuber (Virtual YouTuber: a fictional character animated by a human body who streams content on video sharing platforms such as YouTube, Nico Nico Douga, Twitch, etc.) and Japanese virtual idol Kizuna AI invited popstar Sakurako Ohara to participate in creative games on the virtual set of her show “AI Love Saku Live, Valentine’s Day Live,” streamed on her YouTube channel. The two protagonists promoted their latest musical news while drawing on their digital tablets. The drawings appeared in real time on the main window, eliciting many reactions from the audience who could comment simultaneously.
In October 2020, the Chinese company iQIYI launched Dimension Nova 跨次元新星, the first musical talent show dedicated to virtual idols. The competition included 22 virtual artists performing in front of a jury made up of human celebrities.
Born in 2020, Seraphine is a virtual influencer, a performer in the virtual k-pop band K/DA, as well as a character (“skin”) in the video game League of Legends, produced by Riot Games.
ProjektMelody, or Melody, is the first 3D Hentai Camgirl, and describes herself as an artificial intelligence. At the end of 2020, the Vtuber-camgirl opened a chatroom on the website Chaturbate, one of the main websites for explicit adult pornography, on which camgirls, camboys, and couples take part in live sexual performances. The fictional character is a member of Vshoio, one of the first Vtuber agencies based in the Western world.
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