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Armstrong, Julie Buckner. “Stuck Rubber Baby and the Intersections of Civil Rights Historical Memory.” In Redrawing the Historical Past: History, Memory, and Multiethnic Graphic Novels, edited by Martha J. Cutter and Cathy J. Schlund-Vials, 106-128. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2018. < accessed on January 7 2021>
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Boling, Patricia. Privacy and the Politics of Intimate Life. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1996.
Bordelon, David. “Picturing Books: Southern Print Culture in Howard Cruse’s Stuck Rubber Baby.” In Crossing Boundaries in Graphic Narrative: Essays on Forms, Series and Genres, edited by Jake Jakaitis and James E. Wurtz, 107-122. Jefferson: McFarland, 2012.
Buhle, Paul. “Comics as History.” Reviews in American History 35, no. 2 (June 2007): 315-323.
Cruse, Howard. Early Barefootz. Seattle: Fantagraphics, 1990.
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Cruse, Howard. The Other Sides of Howard Cruse. Los Angeles: Boom!, 2012.
Cruse, Howard. Stuck Rubber Baby. New York: Paradox, DC Comics, 1995.
Delany, Samuel R. “Some Queer Notions about Race.” In Dangerous Liaisons: Blacks, Gays, and the Struggle for Equality, edited by Eric Brandt, 259-289. New York: New Press, 1999.
Dickel, Simon. “‘Can’t Leave Me Behind’: Racism, Gay Politics, and Coming of Age in Stuck Rubber Baby.” Amerikastudien / American Studies 56, no. 4 American Comic Books and Graphic Novels (2011): 617-635.
Donald, James and Ali Rattansi, eds. ‘Race’, Culture and Difference. London: Sage, Open University, 1992.
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Fleetwood, Nicole R. Troubling Vision: Performance, Visuality, and Blackness. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011.
Fraser, Nancy. “Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy.” Social Text 25, no. 26 (1990): 56-80.
Gateward, Frances and John Jennings, eds. The Blacker the Ink: Constructions of Black Identity in Comics and Sequential Art. New Brunswick: Rutgers UP, 2015.
Guerrero, Lisa A. Crazy Funny: Popular Black Satire and the Method of Madness. Abingdon/ New York, Routledge, 2020.
Halperin, David M. How to be Gay? Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard UP, 2012.
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Hobson, Fred. But Now I See: The White Southern Racial Conversion Narrative. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State UP, 1999.
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Kunka, Andrew J. Howard Cruse. Unpublished manuscript. New Brunswick: Rutgers UP, 2021, forthcoming.
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Richards, Gary. “Everybody’s graphic protest novel: Stuck Rubber Baby and the anxieties of racial difference.” In Comics and the U.S. South, edited by Brannon Costello and Qiana J. Whitted, 161-183. Jackson: UP of Mississippi, 2012.
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Wood, Amy Louise. Lynching and Spectacle: Witnessing Racial Violence in America, 1890-1940. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2009.
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Notes
Samantha Puc, “Interview: Howard Cruse dives into queer comics history and his own career as a cartoonist,” The Beat, 06/13/2019; <accessed on June 19 2020>
The word “comix” was used in the late 1960s to describe subversive, countercultural comics intended for mature readers.
Andrew Kunka, Howard Cruse (New Brunswick: Rutgers UP, forthcoming), 16-17.
The expression was coined by Fred Hobson in But Now I See: The White Southern Racial Conversion Narrative (Baton Rouge: LSU Press, 1999), 2.
Julie Armstrong has identified many of the historical references in this “movement narrative.” Julie Buckner Armstrong, “Stuck Rubber Baby and the Intersections of Civil Rights Historical Memory,” in Redrawing the Historical Past: History, Memory, and Multiethnic Graphic Novels, eds. Martha J. Cutter and Cathy J. Schlund-Vials (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2018), 106-128.
Howard Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby (New York: Paradox, DC Comics, 1995), n. p.
Kunka, Howard Cruse, forthcoming, 54.
Gary Richards, “Everybody’s Graphic Protest Novel: Stuck Rubber Baby and the Anxieties of Racial Difference” in Comics and the U.S. South, eds. Brannon Costello and Qiana J. Whitted (Jackson: UP of Mississippi, 2012), 162. In But Now I See: The White Southern Racial Conversion Narrative, Fred Hobson defines the “racial conversion narrative” as “works in which the authors, all products of and willing participants in a harsh, segregated society, confess racial wrongdoings and are ‘converted,’ in varying degrees, from racism to something approaching racial enlightenment.” (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State UP, 1999), 1-2)
Simon Dickel, “‘Can’t Leave Me Behind’: Racism, Gay Politics, and Coming of Age in Stuck Rubber Baby,” Amerikastudien / American Studies 56, no. 4 “American Comic Books and Graphic Novels” (2011): 633, 630.
Jorge J. Santos, Graphic Memories of the Civil Rights Movement: Reframing History in Comics (Austin: U of Texas Press, 2019), 152, 150. Jorge Santos’s reading is mostly based on a reading of the lynching of the white gay pro-Black militant Sammy.
Hobson, But Now I See, 133.
Armstrong, “Stuck Rubber Baby,” 126.
Kai Linke, who has analysed Cruse’s narrative from the perspective of “Gay is the new Black discourses,” reaches severe conclusions, in part because he considers that Toland’s “homosexuality is portrayed as innate, immutable and absolute,” and sees the visual relations in the graphic memoir as a series of “equations” drawn between racism and cis/hetero-sexism, rather than as open to the reader’s interpretation of a subjective, focalized narrative,” Kai Linke, Good White Queers? Racism and Whiteness in Queer U.S. Comics (Wetzlar: transcript Verlag, 2021), 246, 199-229.
Ralph Ellison, Invisible Man (New York: Vintage, 1995), 508, 577.
Fredrik Strömberg, Black Images in the Comics: A Visual History (Seattle: Fantagraphics, 2003).
Andrew Kunka explains that this episode has an autobiographical origin (Howard Cruse forthcoming), 69.
The “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” (DADT) policy was implemented in the U.S. Army in 1993 under President Clinton: it was conceived as a compromise allowing gay men to serve in the Military so long as they concealed their sexual orientation. The Act was repealed by President Obama in December 2010.
Nicholas Mirzoeff, “The Right to Look,” Critical Inquiry 37, no. 3 (Spring 2011): 476.
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 9. Andrew Kunka notes that Cruse “would regularly use a scene of young boys wrestling as a moment of erotic epiphany” (Howard Cruse, forthcoming), 9.
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 10.
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 8.
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 28.
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 193. These are the older Toland’s words.
David M. Halperin, How to be Gay? (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard UP, 2012), 196.
« L’invisibilité se comprend ainsi comme le fait d’être sans qualités – absence revendiquée ou attribuée » Guillaume Le Blanc, L’Invisibilité sociale (Paris: PUF, 2009), 6.
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 2-3.
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 51.
Fredrik Strömberg, Black Images in the Comics: A Visual History (Seattle: Fantagraphics, 2003), 215.
Strömberg, Black Images, passim.
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 66.
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 114.
Ashley Manchester, “Tactility Meets Visuality: Race, Sexuality, and Texture in Howard Cruse’s Stuck Rubber Baby,” International Journal of Comic Art 18, no. 1 (2016): 103.
Howard Cruse, The Other Sides of Howard Cruse (Los Angeles: Boom!, 2012).
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 18, 50, 52, 94, 113, 164, 192, 198.
Wanzo, The Content of Our Caricature: African American Comic Art and Political Belonging (New York: New York UP, 2020), 51
Nicholas Mirzoeff, “The Right to Look,” Critical Inquiry 37, no. 3 (Spring 2011): 475.
Mirzoeff, “The Right to Look,” 473.
Wanzo, The Content of Our Caricature, 27.
Lisa A. Guerrero, Crazy Funny: Popular Black Satire and the Method of Madness (Abingdon/ New York: Routledge, 2020), passim.
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 70-71.
Wanzo, The Content of Our Caricature, 20. “Cartoons using a triangulated structure depict a subjected person or event of interest, and also show someone else’s reaction to that person or thing.”
Guerrero, Crazy Funny, 8.
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 27.
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 26.
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 44.
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 45.
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 122.
Amy Louise Wood, Lynching and Spectacle: Witnessing Racial Violence in America, 1890-1940 (Chapel Hill: The U of North Carolina P, 2009), 10.
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 191.
Most lynching photographs were taken by mob participants or those sympathetic to the lynching.” (Wood, Lynching, 77) With the development of amateur photography in the 1890s, Amy Wood explains, such pictures became more numerous and more widely circulated, in the form of postcards or in entertainment cinema. As the spectacle of lynching became detached from its original context and from the spectators’ reactions, its meaning could be transformed and adapted to different purposes. “By the 1930s, these images came to represent, with iconic power, the most grotesque and egregious aspect of lynching, substantiating the notion that lynching was more than crude vigilantism – it was an atrocity. In this respect, the very spectacle of lynching, so vital to the construction and perpetuation of white supremacy, carried with it the tools of its own dismantling.” (Wood, Lynching, 220-21) The last phase in the history of lynching photographs occurred when they became so decontextualized that they became “icons of oppression,” disconnected from their historical origin. (Wood, Lynching, 269) See also Leigh Raiford, Imprisoned in a Luminous Glare: Photography and the African American Freedom Struggle (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 2011).
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 177-178.
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 10.
Jorge Santos has analyzed in detail the motif of the broken-glass panels, and their role in dismembering the bodies, expressing trauma, and deracializing the history of lynching. “The fragmentation of the traumas depicted in Stuck Rubber Baby may effectively dramatize the plight of White homosexual men in the 1990s,” he concludes, “but only by replacing the African Americans at the center of the historical pathos the novel hopes to access. In doing so, it effectively erases African Americans from this history” Santos, Graphic Memories, 171.
Nancy Fraser, “Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy,” Social Text 25, no. 26 (1990): 56-80.
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 190, 193.
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 190.
Manchester, “Tactility Meets Visuality”, 106.
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 178, 181, 192.
Cathy J. Cohen, “Punks, Bulldaggers, and Welfare Queens: The Radical Potential of Queer Politics,” in Black Queer Studies: A Critical Anthology, eds. E. Patrick Johnson and Mae G. Henderson (Durham/London: Duke UP, 2005), 40.
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 135.
The expression is meant as a joke, since Les is crouching on the front seat, but its political implications are compelling.
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 26.
Kunka, Howard Cruse, forthcoming, 1.
Kunka, Andrew J., Autobiographical Comics (London: Bloomsbury, 2018), 111.
Kunka, Howard Cruse, forthcoming, 36-38.
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 48.
Santos, Graphic Memories, 152.
“[Les’s remark] makes the novel’s focus on the overlap between racial and sexual oppression clear, linking the biological certainty of blackness (an exceedingly problematic claim) with the notion that homosexuality is an inborn trait.” Santos, Graphic Memories, 152.
Bayard Rustin (1912-1987), one of the leaders of the March on Washington, was a gay man who later became an advocate for gay rights.
Ralph Ellison, Invisible Man (New York: Vintage, 1995), 509.
Ellison, Invisible Man, 507.
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 8-9.
Patricia Boling, Privacy and the Politics of Intimate Life (Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1996), 142.
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 201.
Marlon B. Ross, “Beyond the Closet as Raceless Paradigm” in Black Queer Studies: A Critical Anthology, eds. Johnson, E. Patrick and Mae G. Henderson (Durham/London: Duke UP, 2005), 181.
Richards, “Everybody’s Graphic Protest Novel”; Linke, Good White Queers? 183-251.
On the narrative function of music in Stuck Rubber Baby, see Dickel, “Can’t Leave me Behind.”
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 204-205.
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 198.
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 201.
Howard Cruse, Early Barefootz (Seattle: Fantagraphics, 1990), 91.
Cruse, Early Barefootz, 3-4.
Cruse, Early Barefootz, 3.
Howard Cruse has explained that this outlook was prompted by their use of LSD. “An Afterword about those Psychedelics,” Early Barefootz, 101-104.
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 70.
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 164-166.
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 164.
Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 169.
An.? “Censorship Roundup,” School Library Journal 50/10 (Oct 2004): 26.
Frances Gateward and John Jennings, eds., The Blacker the Ink: Constructions of Black Identity in Comics and Sequential Art (New Brunswick: Rutgers UP, 2015), 7.
Wanzo, The Content of Our Caricature, 25.
Howard Cruse was anxious not to depict the Black community in a clichéd manner, especially with regards to homophobia. See Kunka, Howard Cruse, forthcoming, 52-53.
Wanzo, The Content of Our Caricature, 25. There is a subplot in which, by bringing a brick in her handbag to the Russell Park demonstration, Mabel enacts the temptation of responding to violence with violence and runs the risk of being “kicked right out of the movement” Cruse, Stuck Rubber Baby, 75, 110, 135.
Hobson, But Now I See, 22.
“The right to look is not merely about seeing. It begins at a personal level with the look into someone else’s eyes to express friendship, solidarity or love. That look must be mutual, each inventing the other, or it fails. As such it is unrepresentable,” Mirzoeff, “The Right to Look,” 473.
Ross, “Beyond the Closet,” 182.
Johnson and Henderson, ed. Black Queer Studies, 10.
Linke, Good White Queers? 243-44.
Ross, “Beyond the Closet,” 183.
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