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Notes
Dionne Searcey, Helene Cooper and Eric Schmitt, “Conflicting Accounts in Niger Ambush are Subject of Pentagon Investigation,” New York Times, October 20, 2017. <https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/20/world/africa/niger-ambush-conflicting-accounts.html>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
This account is based on a description of the events leading up to the battle by the New York Times, which had access to information from the Pentagon and a video of part of the engagement. Rukmini Callimachi, Helene Cooper, Eric Schmitt, Alan Binder and Thomas Gibbons-Neff, “‘An Endless War’: Why 4 US Soldiers Died in a Remote African Desert,” New York Times, February 20, 2018. <https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/02/17/world/africa/niger-ambush-american-soldiers.html>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Richard Sisk, “Command Failures Led to Niger Ambush, Explosive Report Shows,” Military.com, February 19, 2018. <https://www.military.com/daily-news/2018/02/19/command-failures-led-niger-ambush-explosive-report-shows.html>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
U.S. Defense Department, “Oct 2017 Niger Ambush: Summary of Investigation,” Defense.gov, May 10, 2018 <https://www.defense.gov/portals/1/features/2018/0418_niger/img/Oct-2017-Niger-Ambush-Summary-of-Investigation.pdf>, accessed on August 22, 2018.
Donald J. Trump, “Remarks in an Exchange with Reporters, October 25, 2017,” Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project. <http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=128706>, accessed on February 27, 2018.
“Raqqa: ISIS ‘capital’ falls to U.S.-backed Syrian forces,” BBC News, October 17, 2017. <https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-41646802>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Adam Roberts, “NATO’s ‘Humanitarian War’ Over Kosovo,” Survival, vol. 41, n° 3, automne 1999, 110.
Domenico Montanaro, “Gold Star Widow: Trump Call ‘Made Me Cry Even Worse’,” NPR, October 23, 2017. <https://www.npr.org/2017/10/23/559479959/gold-star-widow-trump-call-made-me-cry-even-worse>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Ibid.
Hannah Parry, “Second Niger Special Forces widow comes forward to PRAISE Trump for his ‘brave’ and ‘gracious’ condolence call about her husband – days after the President’s Twitter spat with a grieving family of fallen soldier,” Daily Mail, October 25, 2017. <http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-5017625/Niger-widow-grateful-Trump-s-gracious-call.html>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Maya Kandel, “Pour l’armée américaine, l’Afrique est un laboratoire de la lutte antiterroriste,” Le Monde, November 18, 2016. <https://www.lemonde.fr/international/article/2016/11/18/maya-kandel-pour-l-armee-americaine-l-afrique-est-un-laboratoire-de-la-lutte-antiterroriste_5033345_3210.html>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Maya Kandel, “La stratégie américaine en Afrique: les risques et contradictions du « Light Footprint »,” in Maya Kandel (dir.), La Stratégie américaine en Afrique, Etudes de l’IRSEM n°36, décembre 2014, 17.
J. Peter Pham, “AFRICOM’s Evolution from Bush to Obama,” in ibidem, 36.
White House, US Strategy Toward Sub-Saharan Africa, June 2012. <https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/209377.pdf>, accessed on April 27, 2018.
“Donald Trump must apologize for comments – African Union,” BBC News, January 12, 2018. <https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-42670715>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Ibid.
Donald J. Trump, “The Inaugural Address,” White House, January 20, 2017. <https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/the-inaugural-address/>, accessed on March 3, 2018.
Dina Smeltz, Ivo Daalder, Karl Friedhoff & Craig Kafura, What Americans Think About America First, Chicago: Chicago Council on Global Affairs, 2017.
Trump, “The Inaugural Address,” op cit.
US Census Bureau, Trade in Goods With Africa. <https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/balance/c0013.html>, accessed on March 3, 2018.
Peter Buxbaum, “Africa Trade Not a Priority for Trump,” Global Trade, February 21, 2018. <http://www.globaltrademag.com/global-trade-daily/africa-trade-not-priority-trump>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
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Twitter Reference: <https://twitter.com/realDonaldTrump/status/910580644597649409>, accessed on March 3, 2018.
Twitter Reference: <https://twitter.com/foxandfriends/status/895954966258503680>, accessed on March 3, 2018.
Twitter References: <https://twitter.com/realDonaldTrump/status/830747067379232769>. <https://twitter.com/realdonaldtrump/status/1005304018741035008>, accessed on August 22, 2018.
Nicole Gaouette, “Trump admin wants to slash funding for diplomacy,” CNN, February 12, 2018. <https://edition.cnn.com/2018/02/12/politics/trump-budget-state-department-aid-cut/index.html>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Ibid.
Jack Corrigan, “State Department Lost 12% of its Foreign Affairs Specialists in Trump’s First 8 Months,” Government Executive, February 9, 2018. <https://www.govexec.com/management/2018/02/state-department-lost-12-its-foreign-affairs-specialists-trumps-first-8-months/145874/>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Gbadamassi, Falila, “Etats-Unis: Tibor Nagy prend en charge les « Affaires africaines »,” Franceinfo, July 26, 2018. <http://geopolis.francetvinfo.fr/etats-unis-tibor-nagy-prend-en-charge-les-affaires-africaines-196801>, accessed on August 22, 2018.
Ryan R. Migeed, “Experts Urge Increased US Engagement in Africa as China Fills the Void,” The Washington Diplomat, February 28, 2018. <http://www.washdiplomat.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=16954%3Aexperts-urge-increased-us-engagement-in-africa-as-china-fills-the-void&catid=1568&Itemid=428&utm_content=buffer64653>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
White House, National Security Strategy of the United States of America, December 2017, 52. <https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/NSS-Final-12-18-2017-0905.pdf>, accessed on March 11, 2018.
Steve George & Brad Lendon, “‘Weaponizing Capital’: US worries over China’s expanding role in Africa,” CNN, March 11, 2018. <https://edition.cnn.com/2018/03/09/asia/djibouti-port-china-us-intl/index.html>, accessed on August 23, 2018. For more on bases in Djibouti, see Christopher Griffin, “Strategic Competition for Bases in Djibouti,” TRENDS Research and Advisory, August 16, 2018. < http://trendsinstitution.org/strategic-competition-for-bases-in-djibouti/>, accessed on August 22, 2018.
Trump, “Remarks by President Trump at Working Lunch with African Leaders,” op cit.
Alexandra Wilts, “Trump’s UN Ambassador Nikki Haley boasts about cutting ‘more than $500m from the UN peacekeeping budget’,” The Independent, June 29, 2017. <https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-politics/nikki-haley-un-peacekeeping-budget-cuts-tweet-donald-trump-us-ambassador-a7815181.html>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Trump, “Remarks by President Trump at Working Lunch with African Leaders,” op cit.
Ibid. The President was not specific about what he meant by “Al Qaeda,” but it is probably a reference to Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM). Al-Shabaab in Somalia and Ansar al-Sharia in Libya are also Al Qaeda-affiliated groups.
George W. Bush, “President Bush Creates a Department of Defense Unified Combatant Command for Africa,” White House Office of the Press Secretary, February 6, 2007. <https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2007/02/20070206-3.html>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Anne Stenersen, Al-Qaida in Afghanistan, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017, 8-9.
Clayton Thomas, “Al Qaeda and US Policy: Middle East and Africa,” Congressional Research Service CRS Report R43756, February 5, 2018, 1.
Daniel L. Byman, “Al Qaeda’s M & A Strategy,” Brookings Institution, December 7, 2010. <https://www.brookings.edu/opinions/al-qaedas-ma-strategy/>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Ibid.
Clayton Thomas, op. cit., 8-9.
Marc Memier, “AQMI et Al-Mourabitoun: le djihad sahélien, réunifié ?” Etudes de l’Ifri, janvier 2017.
Too many of the group’s members had turned to ISIS in Libya. “Libyan Islamist Group Ansar al-Sharia says it is dissolving,” Reuters, May 27, 2017. <https://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-security/libyan-islamist-group-ansar-al-sharia-says-it-is-dissolving-idUSKBN18N0YR>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Al Shabaab worked with Al Qaeda as early as 2008 to fight the Ethiopian intervention in Somalia (launched in 2006). Daniel E. Agbiboa, “Terrorism without borders: Somalia’s Al-Shabaab and the global jihad network,” Journal of Terrorism Research, vol. 5, no. 1, février 2014, 29-31.
Thomas Joscelyn, “Osama bin Laden’s files: AQIM commander recommended training Boko Haram members,” Long War Journal, February 18, 2017. <https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2017/02/osama-bin-ladens-files-aqim-leader-recommended-training-boko-harams-members.php>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Martin Ewi, “What does the Boko Haram-ISIS alliance mean for terrorism in Africa?,” Institute for Security Studies Africa, March 17, 2015. <https://issafrica.org/iss-today/what-does-the-boko-haram-isis-alliance-mean-for-terrorism-in-africa>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Joseph Siegle, “ISIS in Africa: Implications from Syria and Iraq,” Africa Center for Strategic Studies, March 17, 2017. <https://africacenter.org/spotlight/islamic-state-isis-africa-implications-syria-iraq-boko-haram-aqim-shabaab/>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
AFRICOM, “United States Africa Command Posture Statement,” March 2, 2018, <http://www.africom.mil/media-room/document/30467/u-s-africa-command-2018-posture-statement>, accessed on March 11, 2018.
Ibidem, 6.
Ibid., 8.
AFRICOM, “Statement of General Carter Ham Before House Armed Services Committee,” March 1, 2012. <http://www.africom.mil/media-room/article/8832/2012-posture-statement-statement-of-general-carter>, accessed on March 5, 2018.
AFRICOM, “Posture Statement [2018],” op cit., 9-11.
John Vandiver, “AFRICOM: Somalia’s new leaders are best hope to end the nation’s dysfunction,” Stars & Stripes, November 29, 2017. <https://www.stripes.com/news/africom-somalia-s-new-leaders-are-best-hope-to-end-the-nation-s-dysfunction-1.499982>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
“Somalia: US to Expand Fire Support of African Union Mission in Somalia,” AllAfrica, March 31, 2017. <https://allafrica.com/stories/201703310002.html>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
“Somalia: Trump Declares Parts of Somalia a War Zone,” AllAfrica, March 30, 2017. <https://allafrica.com/stories/201703310181.html>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
See AFRICOM’s Press Releases website: <http://www.africom.mil/media-room/press-releases?Page=1>, accessed on August 22, 2018.
Mark Bowden, Black Hawk Down: A Story of Modern War, New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1999.
Stenersen, Al-Qaida in Afghanistan, 166.
Bill Roggio, “Shabaab leader recounts al Qaeda’s role in Somalia in the 1990s,” Long War Journal, December 31, 2011. <https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2011/12/shabaab_leader_recou.php>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Bill Clinton, “The Somalia Mission; Clinton’s Words on Somalia: ‘The Responsibilities of American Leadership’,” New York Times, October 8, 1993. <https://www.nytimes.com/1993/10/08/world/somalia-mission-clinton-s-words-somalia-responsibilities-american-leadership.html>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
James Phillips, “Somalia and al-Qaeda: Implications for the War on Terrorism,” Heritage Foundation, April 5, 2002, 3-4.
Lloyd Vries, “U.S. Strikes in Somalia Reportedly Kill 31,” CBS News, January 8, 2007. <https://www.cbsnews.com/news/us-strikes-in-somalia-reportedly-kill-31/>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
“Somalia: Reported US Covert Operations 2001-2017,” Bureau of Investigative Journalism, 2017. <https://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/drone-war/data/somalia-reported-us-covert-actions-2001-2017>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Mark Mazzetti, “U.S. Signals Backing for Ethiopian Incursion Into Somalia,” New York Times, December 27, 2006. <https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/27/world/africa/27africa.html>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Camp Lemonnier is a former French Foreign Legion base. Philippe Leymarie, “Djibouti: A New Army Behind the Wire,” Le Monde Diplomatique, février 2003. <https://mondediplo.com/2003/02/06djibouti>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Dan Gettinger, “Diaries from the Shadows: Drones and Special Forces in the War on Terror,” Center for the Study of the Drone (Bard College), August 3, 2015. <http://dronecenter.bard.edu/diaries-from-the-shadows-drones-and-special-forces-in-the-war-on-terror/>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Abidunur Mohamud, “The Obama Administration’s Somali Pivot,” Foreign Policy in Focus, June 16, 2014. <https://fpif.org/obama-administrations-somali-pivot/>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Mark Moyar, “How American Special Operators Gradually Returned to Somalia,” The Atlantic, May 14, 2017. <https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/05/somalia-navy-seals/526023/>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Mark Mazzetti, Jeffrey Gettleman & Eric Schmitt, “In Somalia, US Escalates a Shadow War,” New York Times, October 16, 2016. <https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/16/world/africa/obama-somalia-secret-war.html>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Omar S. Mahmood & Ndubuisi Christian Ani, “What Trump’s stance on Africa today means for continental security efforts,” Institute for Security Studies Africa, November 6, 2017. <https://issafrica.org/iss-today/what-trumps-stance-on-africa-means-for-continental-security-efforts>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Jason Burke, “Somali citizens count cost of surge of US airstrikes under Trump,” Guardian, January 23, 2018. <https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jan/23/somali-citizens-count-cost-of-surge-in-us-airstrikes-under-trump>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
AFRICOM denies that civilians were killed in the attack. Christina Goldbaum, “Strong Evidence that US Special Operations Forces Massacred Civilians in Somalia,” Daily Beast, November 29, 2017. <https://www.thedailybeast.com/strong-evidence-that-us-special-operations-forces-massacred-civilians-in-somalia>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Stephen Tankel, “Donald Trump’s Shadow War,” Politico, May 9, 2018, https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2018/05/09/donald-trumps-shadow-war-218327, accessed on August 22, 2018.
Helene Cooper, “U.S. strikes killed nearly 500 civilians in 2017, Pentagon says,” New York Times, June 1, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/01/us/politics/pentagon-civilian-casualties.html, accessed on August 22, 2018.
“UN delays drawdown of Somalia peacekeeping force,” The East African, July 30, 2018. <http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/africa/UN-delays-drawdown-of-Somalia-peacekeeping-force/4552902-4689210-f96du2/index.html>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Anastasia Voronkova, “AMISOM withdrawal raises concern about long-standing security problems in Somalia,” International Institute for Security Studies, April 11, 2017. <https://www.iiss.org/blogs/analysis/2017/04/amisom-withdrawal-somalia>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Robyn Kriel & Briana Duggan, “CNN Exclusive: Somali pirate kings are under investigation for helping ISIS and al-Shabaab,” CNN, July 10, 2017. <https://edition.cnn.com/2017/07/10/africa/somali-piracy-attack-spike/index.html>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
One of Trump’s first military operations after his inauguration was against Al Qaeda leaders in Yemen. Cynthia McFadden, William M. Arkin & Tracy Connor, “Yemen Raid Had Secret Target: Al Qaeda Leader Qassim Al-Rimi,” NBC News, February 7, 2017. <https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/yemen-raid-had-secret-target-al-qaeda-leader-qassim-al-n717616>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Thomas Gibbons-Neff, “U.S. Bombs ISIS in Somalia for the First Time,” New York Times, November 3, 2017. <https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/03/world/africa/isis-bombed-somalia.html>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Matthew Pennington & Cara Anna, “1 U.S. soldier killed and 4 wounded in attack in Somalia,” The Spokesman-Review, June 8, 2018. <http://www.spokesman.com/stories/2018/jun/08/1-us-soldier-killed-4-wounded-in-attack-in-somalia/>, accessed August 22, 2018.
AFRICOM, “Posture Statement [2018],” op cit., 13.
Ibid., 13.
Daniel R. Coats, Director of National Intelligence, The Worldwide Threat Assessment of the US Intelligence Community: Statement for the Record, Washington DC: Office of the Director of National Intelligence, February 13, 2018.
Courtney Kube & Robert Windrem, “Did Obama Defeat ISIS in Libya?” NBC News, January 28, 2017. <https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/did-obama-defeat-isis-libya-n709001>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Despite the New York Times claim that only 4 were disclosed. Eric Schmitt, “Under Trump, US Launched 8 Airstrikes Against ISIS in Libya. It Disclosed 4,” New York Times, March 8, 2018. <https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/08/world/africa/us-airstrikes-isis-libya.html>, accessed on August 23, 2018. Two more airstrikes were carried out in summer 2018, according to AFRICOM’s Press Releases, op cit.
AFRICOM, “Posture Statement [2018],” op cit., 15.
Ibid., 16.
Algeria, Burkina Faso, Chad, Mauritania, Mali, Morocco, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal and Tunisia.
Which was also known for a period as the Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat (GSPC) before joining Al Qaeda.
Andrew Lebovich, “The Real Reason U.S. Troops are in Niger,” Foreign Policy, October 27, 2017. <https://foreignpolicy.com/2017/10/27/the-real-reason-u-s-troops-are-in-niger/>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Lesley Anne Warner, “The Trans Sahara Counter Terrorism Partnership: Building Partner Capacity to Counter Terrorism and Violent Extremism,” Washington DC: CNA Analysis and Solutions, mars 2014, 22.
Gabe Starosta, “The Role of the US Air Force in the French Mission in Mali,” Atlantic Council, November 4, 2013. <http://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/natosource/the-role-of-the-us-air-force-in-the-french-mission-in-mali>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
“The U.S. military is building a $110 million drone base in the city of Agadez, Niger,” Global Defense News, March 2, 2018. <https://globaldefensenews.com/u-s-military-building-110-million-drone-base-inside-city-agadez-niger/>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Lolita Baldor & Robert Burns, “U.S. Official: Niger OKs armed drones for takeoff from its capital,” Defense News, December 1, 2017. <https://www.defensenews.com/global/mideast-africa/2017/12/01/us-official-niger-oks-armed-drones-for-takeoff-from-its-capital/>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Ibid.
Adam Weinstein, “Report: SOCOM has more troops in Africa than anywhere except the Middle East,” Task & Purpose, May 18, 2017. <https://taskandpurpose.com/socom-africa-operations-increase/>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
“A month on, U.S., Niger still disagree on what happened on fatal mission,” Reuters, November 3, 2017. <https://www.reuters.com/article/us-niger-usa-security/a-month-on-u-s-niger-still-disagree-on-what-happened-on-fatal-mission-idUSKBN1D31VH>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Christopher Griffin, “Obama’s Nigerian Strategy,” in Maud Quessard & Maya Kandel (Dirs.), Les États-Unis et la fin de la grande stratégie: un bilan de la politique étrangère d’Obama, Etudes de l’IRSEM, N°52, septembre 2017, 117-119.
Chad withdrew its forces from the battle in October 2017 for reasons that remain unknown.
Tara Copp, “DoD approves danger pay for Niger, Mali, Cameroon,” Military Times, March 9, 2018. <https://www.militarytimes.com/news/your-military/2018/03/08/dod-approves-danger-pay-for-niger-mali-cameroon/>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
Amnesty International, Cameroon’s Secret Torture Chambers: Human Rights Violations and War Crimes in the Fight Against Boko Haram, London: Amnesty, 2017, 41-43.
Ibid., 71-72.
“U.S. may lift ban on ‘important partner’ Chad, Tillerson says,” Reuters, March 12, 2018. <https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL8N1QU26N?feedType=RSS&feedName=kenyaNews>, accessed on August 25, 2018.
“Trump to sell planes to Nigeria to fight Boko Haram despite human rights abuses,” Los Angeles Times, April 10, 2017. <http://www.latimes.com/politics/washington/la-na-essential-washington-updates-trump-to-sell-attack-planes-to-nigeria-1491818856-htmlstory.html>, accessed on August 25, 2018.
AFRICOM, “United States Africa Command 2017 Posture Statement,” March 9, 2017, 5. <http://www.africom.mil/media-room/document/28720/africom-2017-posture-satement>, accessed on March 12, 2018.
Saskia Brechenmeier & Steven Feldstein, “Trump’s War on Terror,” National Interest, October 18, 2017. <https://nationalinterest.org/feature/trumps-war-terror-22783>, accessed on August 25, 2018.
John Vandiver, “Report: General wants to pull hundreds of US troops out of Africa,” Stars & Stripes, August 2, 2018. <https://www.stripes.com/news/report-general-wants-to-pull-hundreds-of-us-troops-out-of-africa-1.540609>, accessed on August 22, 2018.
Kyle Rempfer, “Report: AFRICOM looks to cut special ops missions, pull out hundreds of troops from Africa,” Military Times, August 2, 2018. <https://www.militarytimes.com/news/your-military/2018/08/02/report-africom-looks-to-cut-special-ops-missions-pull-out-hundreds-of-troops-from-africa/>, accessed on August 23, 2018.
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