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2023

The Gondola: a boat to respond to the history, and the morpho-dynamics of the Venice Lagoon

Dario Camuffo

Abstracts

Origin and evolution of the gondola have been reconstructed from historical and documentary written and pictorial sources (figures in books, engravings and paintings), in relation to the physical environment of the Lagoon, its morpho-dynamics with shallow and deep waters, marshes and canals. Particular care has been applied to the physical and hydrodynamic aspects in order to interpret the data and understand how the ancient Venetians could have had an advanced knowledge of the tidal range from sea stairs, tidal phase from the algae colour and direction, bottom depth from surface ripples, and exchanges between the Lagoon and the sea from suspended debris. The various elements of the boat are considered in terms of use and physical advantage, e.g. rowing style, cabin, hull and decorations. The boat evolution has been followed and documented over the centuries. This study clarifies the original shape of the gondola in the 11th century, from the analysis of the contemporary manuscripts and Byzantine mosaics in Ravenna and Venice, and a tablet of the early 14th century. In the 16th century, the gondola changed shape and size. The reason of this restyling was unknown, but has been found in the contemporary edicts, diaries and chronicles and other historical sources. The transformation was kept as a military secret, as well the production of a fleet of small boats provided of rostrums to sail on the rivers Po and Adige and fight against Ferrara and its Allies of the League of Cambrai. A comparison with the Viking- Norman vessels of Bayeux, Palermo and some codices show several strong analogies with the military gondolas of the 16th century. An overview of the written and pictorial sources has allowed to classify the various gondola types and recognize several technical details. Finally, the size and depth have been considered to interpret the ancient chronicles that mentioned that in the occasion of the most extreme storm surges, the gondolas could ride on San Marco Square, i.e. the flooding water depth necessary to float and to navigate over street paving.

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Author’s notes

To increase readability, or to focus on the subject, most images have been retouched, i.e., cropped; removed perspective or other distortion; adjusted colour balance and saturation, levels and contrast; lightened shades; sharpened, removed some paper stains; softened ink migrated from the back page.
Funding: No funds, grants, or other supports.
Competing Interests: The author has no competing interest.

Full text

Sincere thanks are due to Dr Christophe Morhange, Scientific Editor of Méditerranée, for his interest and editorial assistance; to Dr A. Elena Charola, Emeritus Research Scientist, Museum Conservation Institute of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC; and Dr Alberto Craievich, Director of Ca’ Rezzonico, Museo del Settecento, Venice, for their useful suggestions; to all the people that have kindly helped the research and the consultation of ancient written and pictorial documents, and have kindly provided the images, i.e. the Italian Ministry of Culture, and in particular: Dr Giulio Manieri Elia, Director of the Gallerie dell’Accademia, Venice and Dr Diana Ziliotto head of the Manuscript Archives; Internet Culturale, the Biblioteca Marciana, Venice, in particular Dr Alessia Giachery; the Catalogo Unico delle Biblioteche Italiane (ICCU); Dr Flaminia Gennari Santori, Director of the Gallerie Nazionali di Arte Antica Palazzo Barberini & Galleria Corsini, Roma - Bibliotheca Hertziana, Istituto Max Planck per la storia dell'arte - Enrico Fontolan and Dr Alessandro Cosma Photographic Archive; Dr Carla Lestani, head of the Manuscript section, Biblioteca Universitaria, Padua; Dr Giovanna Bergantino, Biblioteca Antica del Seminario Vescovile, Padua; the Staff of the Biblioteca Statale del Monumento Nazionale di Santa Giustina, Padua, directed by Abbot Don Francesco Trolese OSB; The Bibliotheca Terre Sanctae, Jerusalem; The Museo Nacional Thyssen-Bornemisza, Madrid; Mrs Veronica Montes; the Photographic Archive, Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid; The Paris Musées, and in particular: Paris Musée Cognacq-Jay, Petit Palais, Musée des Beaux-Arts de la Ville de Paris; Museum and City of Bayeux and Mrs Clementine Paquier-Berthelot; DRAC Normandie, University of Caen Normandie; CNRS, Ensicaen; Gallica, Bibliothèque Nationale de France; The British Library, London; The Earl of Leicester and Trustees of the Holkham Estate, Wells-Next-The-Sea, UK; The Harward Library, Curiosity Collection, Scanned Maps; The Metropolitan Museum, New York; The Samuel H. Kress Foundation, New York; The Archival Resources of the Library of the National Gallery of Art, Washington DC; The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles & Getty's Open Content Program, Google Art Project, J. Paul Getty Trust; Pierpont Morgan Library and Museum, New York; Pexels and in particular: Mr Quang Nguyen and Mr Maciej Cisowski; Wikipedia and in particular: Mr Godromil; Mr Frode Inge Helland; Mr Francesco Rossi; Mr Richard Stracke; Mr Md Towhidul Islam; Mr Jean-Pierre Dalbéra. Last but not least, to the Reviewers for their precious time and useful suggestions.

1. Introduction

  • 1 “Proinde naves quas more animalium vestris parietbus illigastis, diligenti cura reficite, ...” Cass (...)
  • 2 “Gundulam vero nullam, nisi liberam voluntate vestra nobis facturi estis” (Falier, Pacta II, 29-30) (...)
  • 3 “et ipsi parati et recepta sive gundulis et angaridiis, sicut Domino Duci faciant omnem honoratione (...)

1In the 6th century AD, Cassiodorus, the minister of Theodoric the Great, King of Ostrogoths, was greatly marveled at the high standard of living of the Venetians, and especially that every citizen had a house and a boat: “The boats that you keep with diligence, tied to your houses, as they were animals, you would like to use them in our service ....”1 (Zeno1558; Kandler1847). The gondola is the most famous boat of Venice, and its name is explicitly mentioned in the ancient documents, e.g., a decree of Doge Vitale Falier dated 1094 to the inhabitants of Loreo, i.e.: “you are not obliged to provide a gondola to us, except you will do so”2. The Chronicle of Altino (1210 ca) reports that the Patriarch of Grado had the rights of riding, shooting and fishing in the lagoons near the Livenza and Piave Rivers. The inhabitants were bound to respect, honour and welcome him with their gondolas and other boats3. The Chronicle attributed this treatise to Elia, the Metropolitan Patriarch of Grado, who in 579 organized a political convention to establish rights and boundaries, that was immediately approved by the Venetians and formally confirmed by the first Doge Pauluccio Anafesto, 7th century. However, the most ancient documents report the name of this boat, not how it was made.

2In the past (Sansovino, 1581), the name was attributed to the corruption of the Latin word cymbula (small boat, shell), or conchula (fish), or the Greek kondu (cup), kondyliom (box, small boat) or other words to indicate small boat, bowl, cradle, shell. None of these hypotheses is convincing, although based on the concept of small, curved, to keep inside something. More recently it has been linked to mediaeval terms that mean small boat, or to sway (Tassini, 1988), because the gondola is a shaky boat that sways at every wave, row stroke, or internal motion. This makes very relaxing traveling, being gently cradled all the time. However, the etymology remains obscure.

3The gondola was born as a short and resistant boat, especially conceived to move within the Lagoon, and then evolved to increase in length and gain in elegance. Going back over time, its shapes are known, but the reasons why changes have been applied remain obscure.

4The gondola has never been used to carry goods. It is a boat especially conceived to transport persons, with the similar function that have coaches in other cities. It may serve either for private or public use, for ceremonies or water-taxi service. It has been, and remains, a very seductive tourist attraction: it is an emblematic image, that symbolizes the charm of Venice. It is found in many famous paintings, travel reports, novels, articles or books focused on art, history, naval building technology or even model reproduction kits. An overview of this boat has been considered by Brown (1884) and Gillette (1988); the history by Casoni (1847), Munerotto (1994, 2009, 2010) and Marzo Magno (2008); the construction issues by Pergolis and Pizzarello (1981) and Penzo (1999, 2002, 2016). The history has been reconstructed in broad terms, but some periods have remained obscure, as well as the reason for some transformations.

5The existing literature suffers from two information gaps: the former concerns the original shape that the gondola had at its origins, before the famous paintings by Carpaccio near the end of the 15th century; the latter concerns the radical transformation of the 16th century. Unfortunately, the Most Serene Republic of Venice emitted many decrees to regulate the water management and the fishing in the Lagoon, but only a few about boats and vessels that remain poorly documented (Amministrazione Provincia Venezia, 1980). This work has considered, day by day, all the sources of the 16th century, both public edits and private writings, seeking for the serious reason that triggered this transformation, as discussed later.

6There is another reason that may justify further studies. In the ancient chronicles, we find that when the storm surges caused the deepest flooding of the City, the Venetians could reach San Marco Square by gondola (Enzi and Camuffo1995; Camuffo, 2023). To interpret these chronicles, and in particular the depth of the flooding waters, it is necessary to know how the gondola was changed over the centuries, and especially its draught.

7For the first time, the gondola and its evolution are here considered under a multidisciplinary approach, including historical investigations (e.g., documentary written and pictorial sources); environmental research (e.g., the Lagoon, the geomorphology of the bottom, the exchanges with the sea waters) and physical considerations (e.g., fluid dynamics).

8The aims of this paper are: to reconstruct the roots and the evolution of this boat with multidisciplinary investigations on the original sources, either written documents, engravings or paintings; to relate the gondola to the morphology of the Lagoon, and the dynamics of the waters; to interpret the flooding depth in ancient chronicles, when gondolas could ride on San Marco Square.

2. Relationships between the morpho-dynamics of the Venice Lagoon, skills of the Venetian mariners and boat types

2.1 The Venice Lagoon

9The Lagoon has always been a locality with strong human interactions, as shown by archaeological settlings and a Roman road that crossed it (Ammerman et al., 1999; Madicardo et al., 2021). Originally, the Lagoon of Venice was separated from the sea by five islands, which determined six inlets on the eastern side. On the western side, some rivers entered the Lagoon. Storm surges transported inside sand, that deposited on the bottom, while turbid rivers transported silt and mud. This determined the formation of marshes, partly submerged or emerged, depending on the tide, or the erosion. To reduce silting, the rivers were diverted off, or regulated with public works and external canalizations especially from 1300 to 1700. The cartographers Benedetto Bordone (1534) (Fig.1a) and Lodovico Furlanetto (1780) (Fig.1b) provide a representation of two steps of the transformation over time, from the six inlets at the turn between the 15th and 16th century, the four inlets at the end of the 18th century, that have been reduced to three inlets today, i.e. Lido, Malamocco and Chioggia.

Fig. 1 – Maps of the Venice Lagoon

Fig. 1 – Maps of the Venice Lagoon

(A): Early 16th century (Bordone, 1534); (B): end of the 18th century (Furlanetto, 1780)

Credits: (a) Biblioteca Universitaria, Padova; (b) Gallica gallica.bnf.fr/BnF

10Venice was born as an archipelago of islands that over time grew and the closest ones were connected with bridges (Gallicciolli, 1795; Filiasi, 1797, Miozzi, 1968). The only way of connection between less served islands and the mainland was by boat. The Venetians boats had to face two difficulties: the complex morphology of the bottom, and the dynamics of the waters. The Lagoon bottom is uneven, with marshes, and meandering canals (Fig. 2a, b) excavated by old rivers, tidal motions, or by men for hydraulic regulations or transport purposes. For these particularities, it has been necessary to use oars for rowing and not piles pushing on the bottom because the Lagoon has uneven depth.

Fig. 2 – Details of the Lagoon environment

Fig. 2 – Details of the Lagoon environment

(a): Aerial view of Burano island, and marshes around it. (b): Aerial view of old river channelling through the saltmarshes in the north-eastern Lagoon, with haze. (c): Sky reflected on mirroring waters and vegetation from marshes, near Torcello. (d): How waves change with bottom depth. The lower half of the photo corresponds to a deep channel; the part above the pile is marsh. The waves change shape at the passage, and form ripples parallel to the channel (or canal) edge (arrow).

Credits: Photo (a) to (d) Wikipedia, pictures by (a) Frode Inge Helland; (b) Francesco Rossi; (c, d) Godromil)

11Over the centuries, the Venetians made several works to improve their passageways trough the marshes, by removing sand and mud settled in the natural channels, or digging new canals, or reinforcing the borders of the small islands, or transforming selected parts of the marshes into cultivated crops, industrial areas, or fish cultivation. These actions caused various impacts on the local hydrology, bottom morphodynamics, physical environment and biological life (Rallo, 1966; Dorigo, 1983; Carbognin, 1992; Tosi et al., 2009; D’Alpaos, 2010; Bondesan and Furlanetto, 2012; Asmundo, 2017).

2.2 Recognizing the bottom depth

12When riding in the Lagoon, the main risk was to be unable to recognize the waterways (either channels or canals) hidden under the turbid waters, or algae, or the sky reflected from the water surface (Fig. 2 c,d), and run aground on the sandbanks. Or, navigating in too shallow water, to get trapped in a sandbank. This required acute observation and advanced skills.

13The Lagoon is apparently homogeneous on the surface, but the bottom depth is variable and generally not visible either for marine vegetation, turbidity or sky reflection. The Venetians understood that the small waves, either wind waves, of waves generated by the bow, change direction being refracted in a different way when the bottom depth changes (Fig. 2d). Therefore, they could recognize when boats were navigating in the middle of a channel (or a canal), or were approaching the borders, or were over marshes with sufficient depth. Nowadays channels and canals are marked with poles (Fig. 2d) planted at their edges, and the principal ones are also illuminated. In the past centuries, any waterway indication was deliberately avoided for national security reasons: only the Venetians were able to navigate, while a foreign invader would have run aground in the sandbanks. This was a determinant factor in sieges and wars e.g. the war of Genoa in 1379‑1380.

14When waterways are not marked with poles, it is necessary that the rower is standing to carefully observe the water surface and the propagation of the wind or bow waves. The gondola adopted the solution with a rower standing back on the stern (named gondoliere), with a single oar that he pushes, moving the boat in the same direction as he looks. The rower is on an elevated position, to have a free front sight not obstructed by the cabin. The modern iron decoration on the prow indicates the front end. This is particularly useful in narrow waterways.

15The combination of experience and acute observations helped, but it was necessary to create boats that could navigate in very shallow waters. The Venetians developed light boats with flat bottom so as not to get stuck in the mud and, just in case, to be able to slip off easily. Lightness was an essential factor in having a low draught. In the gondola, both boat extremes, bow and stern, rise high from the water, and were slanted to soften any impact with the seabed. This boat required a dynamical shape, with a particular balance in width and depth, as discussed later, while the length was less critical and changed over time.

2.3 Recognizing tides

16Knowing tidal cycles and recognizing the phase was essential when navigating in shallow waters, because a boat may float at high tides, but will remain locked on the marshes at low tides, and must wait for the next tidal cycle to float again. Ancient Venetians had a very advanced knowledge about that. They knew that the front of the algae belt indicates the upper level usually reached by the sea water (Fig. 3a), and that the tidal range (TR) was two Venice feet, i.e., TR = 70 cm (Cornaro, 1560; 1 Venice foot = 34.77 cm). The question is how Cornaro knew the tidal range before tide gauges were invented. In Venice, all buildings have their facade and the main gate facing a canal, and a water stair to reach a boat that was the normal way to move through Venice. The stairs had standard steps, i.e., 1 Venice foot the thread and ½ foot the riser (Serlio, 1600). This may be related to sea level and also to determine the sea level rise looking at the lowest step when the stair was built (Camuffo et al., 2017; Camuffo, 2022b).

17The colour of the algae is determined by the chlorophyll synthesis that requires the compresence of water, CO2, and photons from solar radiation, i.e.:

6CO2 + 6H2O + photons → C6H12O6 + 6O2

18The normal tidal cycle involved four steps of the sea stairs. The two steps above the mean sea level (MSL) are exposed to sunshine and CO2 for longer time, which allows a better chlorophyll synthesis, and are colonized by green algae. As opposed, the two steps below MSL receive less sunshine and less CO2 and the algae are dark (Fig. 3b). Therefore, a simple glance was enough to recognize if water was near, or far from the MSL, if high or low tide. As the resolution was 1 riser, the uncertainty band was ±½ riser = ± 9 cm, and the tidal range should be rewritten TR = 70± 10 cm using rounded values. Today the median is TR = 60 ± 0.1 cm. It is not surprising to read that, as a first approximation, the tidal range has kept the same order of magnitude, as the astronomical forcing is obviously the same; as opposed, the inlets have changed: in the past they were shallower, but double in number compared to today.

19It must be specified that the stair in the figure is Ca’ Rezzonico, on the Grand Canal with intense motorboat traffic, near the stop of a waterbus. Nowadays, the crests of waves generated by the motor-boat traffic raise the wetting level and partially involve an additional (third) step on the top, that is visibly less colonized. Before the modern traffic, the water surface was smooth and the algae level better determined.

Fig. 3 The algae infestation helps to recognize tide level

Fig. 3 – The algae infestation helps to recognize tide level

(a): The level reached by the green algae on buildings corresponds to the front of usual wetting level. (b) In stairs, the top two steps from the high-tide level (HT) to the mean sea level (MSL) are green for better chlorophyll synthesis, while the two steps from the average sea level to the average low-tide level (LT) are dark.

Credit: the author

20In the open Lagoon, without algae reference, rising tides were associated with the entry of water from the sea, that was recognizable by looking at the small debris held in suspension in the water, that were moving west, with highest speed near MSL, and very low speed at high or low tide. This is like the speed of a pendulum related to its level. Vice-versa, ebbing tides were associated with water flow in the opposite direction.

2.4. Different boat types

21The Venetian artisans managed to develop and adapt their boats to this difficult and evolving environment. The morphological structure determined the creation of three kinds of boats:

(i) small, light and flat-bottomed boats to be able to pass or hunt even in areas with shallow water (e.g., gondola, sandolo). This could ride everywhere, including marshes or narrow waterways. These boats have an essential structure, and have similarities with Asian boats built for similar environments (Fig. 4). It is possible that Marco Polo with his travels to China from 1271 to 1295 may have imported some useful technical solutions, thus improving similarities.

(ii) capacious, wide and deep-hulled boats for the transport of things and goods (e.g. peata, topo);

(iii) large merchant ships were too big and could not navigate the Lagoon; they could only pass through the short stretch from the mouth of the Lido that connects the Lagoon with the Adriatic Sea, up to the Punta della Salute in front of San Marco.

Fig. 4 – Boats with flat bottom floating on shallow waters in Asia

Fig. 4 – Boats with flat bottom floating on shallow waters in Asia

(a-e) Vietnam; (f) India. Note in (e) the removable cabin-shelter obtained with two U-frames and bamboo fences.

Source : Pexel. Photo: (a-e) Quang Nguyen; (f) Md Towhidul Islam. License CC-BY-SA-3.0

22The similarity with the Asian boats used in the marshy environments indicates that the basic hull shape, i.e., light, narrow and with flat bottom was the best solution in the Venice Lagoon. The Venetians needed a small and robust boat for a quick transport of a small number of persons. The peculiarity was that they had to navigate in shallow waters, crossing marshes and canals, or passing through the small rivers and reach inland sites, or to be used in proximity of the coast. The environmental conditions, and the needs for use, generated a variety of slightly different solutions of easily manageable boats with similar hull, i.e.; light, flat bottom, long and narrow, with both ends pointed. Size and length were initially variable, and later standardized, thus creating some specific boat types.

  • 4 the upper edge of the side of a boat or ship

23The gondola has the bottom flat transversally, i.e.: from left to right, but is curved longitudinally, i.e.: with prow and stern above the water level. For the flat bottom and missing a keel, the gondola has not the sideway resistance needed to counter the force that lateral wind may exert on the cabin, rower and passengers. Again, the waterline is very high, close to gunwale4 level, so that waves exceeding 10-15 cm may splash inside. Therefore, the gondola is conceived for the Lagoon waters that are generally smooth, but cannot face rough seas or stormy weather. An acute travel note written three centuries ago depicted the stampede of all the gondolas when a storm was approaching:

“The Lagoon waters are generally pretty smooth, except in case of high winds, which sometimes rise very suddenly, and with great violence. In such case, woe to the gondolas that are abroad, for they can endure no weather. When there is any sign of a storm approaching, they immediately make homewards, with all the haste they can. Not only on the Lagoon, but in the canals within the City, when a sudden storm arises, though the canal be now spread over with gondolas, in a moment's time they all disappear.” (Wright, 1730).

24The gondola was also used as a part of the equipment of large vessels (Sanuto, 1496‑1533; Carli Rubbi, 1709; Casoni, 1847) but not in terms of lifeboats that at those times were not conceived. Commander, mariners and rowers had to follow the fate of the ship, whether it was burning or sinking, and the struggle for life gave them great motivation to fight and resist to the extreme (Malipiero, 1843). In the case of major naval battles, the commander had to bring the family on board, as a guarantee that he would fight to the end to save them. Therefore, one or two small boats on board were necessary to connect the vessel with another ship, or a port, during calm sea conditions, and the gondola constituted a typical solution.

3. Physical elements on which the gondola is based

3.1 Generalities

25The gondola applies the fundamental principles of fluid dynamics (Kuethe and Chow, 1976). The power needed to propel a gondola is mainly due to the volume of water displaced (related to the cross section of the boat, and very secondarily to the length), and to the speed (related to the dissipation forces for the turbulence generated; the length of the wave generated by the bow is determined by the boat speed; the dissipated energy increases with the shear and the total area and roughness of the wetted surface). The ancient Venetians understood that the best conditions were given by narrow boats, propelled at low speed. The normal speed of gondolas is the same of a walking person because this requires little effort, and tourists have enough time to see and enjoy the city.

3.2 How the gondola is propelled

26The gondola is normally propelled by only one rower in standing position. The oar is not fastened to the hull, but is used to propel in a sculling manner and acts as a rudder. Instead of pulling going backward, the rower pushes forward the oar against an open rowlock, that is a strong piece of wood called ‘forcola’ (fork) rising one or two foots above gunwale (Fig. 5a). The English name ‘rowlock’ is not appropriate because it literally means a hole, or a U-shaped device that that ‘locks’, i.e., keeps the oar in position while it is moved backwards and forwards. As opposed, the forcola is fully open and vertical, so that it is really difficult to keep the oar in position, especially after the stroke. Therefore, from here on, we will use the Venetian term forcola.

27The rower stands in the stern on a little raised platform, and keeps his oar on the right side. He gives a vigorous push, and throws the force of not only his arms, but his whole body including legs pushing into the stroke. Then, he drags the oar slightly in the water before the next stroke, without losing his balance. The forcola has one or two notches to receive the oar either on the upper, or the lower notch; it can be operated with adverse motions, pushing on the backside to brake, or to move backwards. Venetian forcolas have open notches to allow easy oar movements, but require a special long-term practice. When the journey should be fast, a second rowers is employed, located in front position. The rower on the stern has the key task of driving, acting either as a propeller or as helmsman.

Fig. 5 (a, b) Forcola and oar

Fig. 5 (a, b) – Forcola and oar

Front and side view of a forcola with a single notch; (b) The lever principle of rowing: The fulcrum O is in water; OF is the distance from the forcola F, i.e., the load arm; OG the distance from the gondolier G, i.e., the lever arm.

Credits : (a) adapted from Wikipédia, (b) the author

28With the rower standing up, the length of the part of the oar from the rower to the water (i.e., the lever arm) is long (Fig. 5b), while the from the water to the forcola (i.e., the load arm) is short, so that rowing is much easier. For the lever principle, the fulcrum of rowing is the oar blade O immersed in water, while the whole oar length OG is the lever arm connected to the effort, and the load arm OF is the portion from the blade to the forcola. The efficiency increases with a forcola in low position, on a low gunwale. This requires a relatively low hull. In average the ratio between the load to the effort arms (i.e. OF/OG) is from 1:3 to 1:2.

29In order to exhibit their power, or to go faster, the noble Venetian Families had gondolas with one or two pairs of rowers.

30The gondolas used as a public ferry service (traghetto) to cross the Grand Canal are managed by two rowers, to share the power needed and to help people get into the boat, or dismount, because this operation makes the boat sway, and it is easy to lose balance. A third task of the second rower is to get paid for the ferry. The two rowers are located diagonally, one on the right and one on the left side: this reduces the weight unbalance, and today the gondolas used for ferry purposes can be symmetrical, like in the 19th century.

3.3 Cabin and awnings

31The gondola, being devoted to the transport of passengers, required a protection in the case of adverse environmental conditions, e.g., light rain, strong sunshine, swarms of mosquitos. Therefore, in the middle of the boat a small covered cabin was located, spacious enough to accommodate four persons. The cabin was removable as required. Especially in the early period, the cabin, named ‘felze’, was simple and U-framed. The etymology is uncertain. Most sources relate it to the Venetian name to the ferns (i.e., felze) that were used with intertwined branches to make the cover; other options include Byzantine words. When in the 18th century the cabin was better structured, with wooden frame, windows and inner lining in raw wool, it continued to be named felze, but it was more commonly named ‘caponera’ i.e., cage for capons. In the following, we will use felze for the former type, caponera for the latter.

32In early gondolas, the felze cabin was constituted of two U-shaped frames with an array of holes, or indents, to insert some horizontal rods (Fig. 6a) to hold a cover, e.g., a bamboo wattle fence, or an awning or a tapestry for celebrations. The structure is recognizable from paintings and drawings, as discussed later. Horizontal rods were likely constituted of local swamp reeds that were freely available, easily replaceable, and resistant. Lateral rods and awning length were regulated to cover the ceiling, or the ceiling and both sides.

33The result was a half cylinder open at both ends, or closable with fabric sheets or decorated tapestry for celebrations. The cabin was the basic solution of shelters against sunshine or adverse weather that was utilized by the normal merchant boats (Fig. 6b), and will continue to be used even in the next centuries. The same solution was adopted in Asian Countries, e.g., India, China, Japan (Fig. 4e).

Fig. 6 (a, b) Felze cabin

(a): Early cabin structure, felze type, in use from the 15th to 17th century. It was composed of two U shaped frames, with holes to insert horizontal rods constituted of swamp reeds. A matting or an awning was placed on the top to form the ceiling, or to cover both sides. (b): Weather shelters with half-cylinder shape, used regularly by merchant boats (Valeriani et al., 1715)

Credits: (a) the author, (b) Internet Culturale © Marciana National Library, Venice, Italy. License CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

34In summer, the cabin was generally replaced by awnings or even removed. It was removed also in the summer evenings, when it is pleasant to go out in gondola to take some fresh air.

35In 1514, the Senate instituted a special Magistrate, named Provveditori alle Pompe (i.e. Supervisors to Pomps, i.e., the public decorum), to be responsible for regulating everyday life, which had to be sober and essential. They had authority on customs and traditions, including feasts, banquets and the public behavior of prostitutes (Lorenzi, 1870-72). These supervisors emitted several decrees (e.g., 1562, 1584, 1609, 1628, 1633) to regulate gondolas, their cabins, and rowers, to avoid any form of luxury. At times the decrees included several details, other times they were very synthetic or the simple repetition of previous ones. However, they are useful to understand how a gondola was made, and managed, e.g.:

  • 5 Literally: “Company of Stocking”, that was a club of nobles dedicated to pleasures and amusements, (...)
  • 6 Decree of the Provveditori alle Pompe, dated 8 October 1562.

1562. “Gondola cabins made of silk and cloth are severely prohibited. These cannot be used by anyone, even if they are gentlemen (e.g., members of the Compagnia della Calza5) who, however, can keep their decorated tapestry inside the cabin, except the companions of the aforementioned Company who can keep and use only the tapestry that they already have. Our Rectors of the Republic are allowed to bring a decorated tapestry either inside the cabin, or in the boat without cabin, as they wish. All cabins must be refined of truly raw wool. In addition to this, woven boat upholstery is prohibited. It is forbidden to gild, paint or carve the structures, tools, sticks and clubs of the cabin or hull. The cabins must be made of only wood, according to the common use. Likewise, it is prohibited that the irons of such boats go beyond the norm.”6.

  • 7 Decree of Sopraprovveditori e Provveditori alle Pompe, dated 9 December 1628.

1628. “Gondolas shall not be adorned with forbidden luxury equipment. Servants shall not be in livery, except on the occasion of weddings, and in that case they must be dressed only in cloth and shall not exceed the allowed number.”7

  • 8 Decree of Sopraprovveditori e Provveditori alle Pompe, dated 18 April 1633.

1633. “Severe penalties, in the judgment of the Magistrates, will be imposed on those who violate the law on the ornaments of gondolas and the clothing of the rowers. It is prohibited to line in whole or in part cabins with silk, cloth or wool with special processing, but only simple raw wool can be used. Silk cords and tassels, plain or embellished satin patches, with or without weft processing, types of silk weaving, single or double thread, are prohibited. Special manufactures are prohibited on the wooden parts on bow and stern, and to the benches, which cannot be decorated with holes or with inserts of ivory, ebony or any other wood species. They must only be made of walnut or other cheaper wood. The tips of the fingers of the metal decorations of the stern are also subject to the same prohibition, which must not form figures, pyramids, flowers or similar things. Only simple iron jugs or essential knobs, without any processing, are allowed.”8

36Finally, in the 18th century, the cabin was better structured with a wooden frame, internally lined (Fig. 6 c). The transformation was described as follows: “removing the iron from the stern and making additions not aimed at luxury but for comfort, the gondola was brought to that essential perfection by which one can always ride in a gondola comfortably and sheltered from any weather, either storm or too strong sunshine” (Mutinelli1851). Nowadays, the dominant use is for tourism, which requires a completely free view, without cabins or awnings.

Fig. 6 (c) – Structured cabins, caponera type, in use from the 18th century

Fig. 6 (c) – Structured cabins, caponera type, in use from the 18th century

It was constituted of a rigid wooden frame with windows and curtains.

Marieschi, Magnificentiores selectioresque Urbis Venetiarum prospectus, Pisani Palace, 1710-43. Gallica.bnf.fr / BNF.

4. History of the gondola

37A thorough analysis of the written and pictorial sources (i.e., paintings or drawings) has been carried out to reconstruct how the gondola evolved over time. The gondola is mentioned many times in the written sources but, especially in the early period, these sources leave obscure both shape and size. We know that a boat with that name existed, that it was very popular, either for normal citizen or authorities, but its face remains unknown. As opposed, the pictorial sources show its appearance since 1486 and allow to follow its evolution over the centuries, as follows.

4.1. The origins of the gondola, “cymbula” type (from 12th to 15th century)

38The gondola was probably created in the 6th century, and is found documented at the end of the 12th century. Its shape is unknown. However, we know that Venice was strictly linked to the Byzantine empire and the Greek tradition. Ravenna had several similarities with Venice. Both of them were important cities, that had strict historical links with Rome and then with Byzantium; both were facing the Adriatic Sea at short sailing distance (113 km) and had lagoons and marshes, and were well connected with Roman roads.

39The mosaic of the 6th century in the Church of S. Apollinaire Nuovo, Ravenna, with the calling of Peter and Andrew (Fig. 7a) show a prototype of the gondola. The two apostles are in a small boat, i.e., a cymbula, very likely typical of Ravenna, and the shape is like a Crescent Moon. The boat was certainly for the Ravenna marshes because such a small boat cannot afford the open sea. This is the period in which Venice was founded (i.e., 421 AD) and the mosaic represents the boat used at that time for marshes. Therefore, the link with the Latin word cymbula should not be considered limited to the etymology, but indicates that the gondola was derived from the Roman cymbula.

40A mediaeval Greek manuscript of the turn between the 11th- 12th century, i.e. “Madrid Skylitzes” at the Biblioteca Nacional de España, Madrid, illustrated by the Byzantine historian Ioannes Scylitzes, shows a Byzantine ship using Greek fire against a ship belonging to the rebel Thomas the Slav (Fig. 7b, c), as well other military ships. This manuscript is very important because it is contemporary to the creation of the gondola. The ships are inspired to a circular geometry that seems to be the typical shape in the Byzantine and Venice tradition.

Fig. 7 (a, b, c) – Cymbula and cimbula-like vessels (6 and 11 centuries)

Fig. 7 (a, b, c) – Cymbula and cimbula-like vessels (6 and 11 centuries)

(a): Cymbula of the 6th century, detail of the calling of Peter and Andrew, Mosaic from the Church of S. Apollinaire Nuovo, Ravenna. (b,c): Byzantine ships illustrated at the turn between the 11th- 12th century (Codex Skylitzes Matritensis)

Credits: (a) photo: Richard Stracke. License CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.); (b-c) Biblioteca Nacional de Madrid, Vitr. 26-2, Bild-Nr. 77, fol. 34 v. b., and fol. 29v, Biblioteca Nacional de España, Madrid

41The mosaics of the Basilica of San Marco represent some vessels that were used for the open sea and boats for lakes, to illustrate famous evangelic or biblical episodes. These boats are clearly inspired by the contemporary technology, although most of them deal with ancient events occurred in Palestine. However, there is a series illustrating a recent event in which the ship was Venetian. It represents the transportation of the Saint Mark's relics, from Alexandria, Egypt, to Venice, which occurred in AD 827-829, during the Dukedom of Giustiniano Partecipazio. The most interesting image represents a ship that is towing a small boat, like a cymbula, tied with a cable (Fig. 7d). The mosaic is of the 12th century and the small boat is very likely representative of the most popular small boat used in Venice, that was also used as a service equipment to ships, i.e., the gondola. This hypothesis is further supported by a marble relief of the intrados of the central gate of the San Marco Basilica. These reliefs represent the Venetian Trades, and the one dedicated to the boat builders shows four workers around a boat shown in Fig. 7d (BBR). The relief was sculpted in 1235-50 and the boat selected as a symbol of this Trade is similar to the boat of the mosaic.

Fig. 7 (d) – Venetian cymbula (12th century)

Fig. 7 (d) – Venetian cymbula (12th century)
  • 9 The mosaic is in the Chapel of San Cipriano, San Marco Basilica. The view of the ship towing this s (...)

The ship is towing a small boat, like a cymbula, tied with a cable. (Detail of the transportation of Saint Mark's relics9, 12th century.

  • 10 This image has been obtained from a detail of the small boat in the reliefs of the Venetian Trades, (...)

Credits: Image Collection, National Gallery of Art, Washington DC. The detail has been retouched for the added colors and to remove some organ pipes).
Bottom: A typical Venetian boat of the mid-13th century representing boat builders’ trade association. BBR: Boat builders’ relief.
Credits: (Retouched detail of the relief of boat builders10). Mosaic and relief in San Marco Basilica

42The same type of boat is represented in a painting on a tablet “The Calling of the Apostles Peter and Andrew” by Duccio di Boninsegna, dated 1308-1311, at the Samuel H. Kress Foundation, New York (Fig. 7e). Duccio was born in Siena and operated in Tuscany, and was not familiar with Venice. However, this shows that the cymbula was the most popular small boat.

Fig. 7 (e)

Fig. 7 (e)

Detail of the small boat in the “The Calling of the Apostles Peter and Andrew” by Duccio di Boninsegna, dated 1308-1311

Credits: Samuel H. Kress Foundation, New York, Archival Resources of the National Gallery of Art, Washington

43The most obvious conclusion is that the cymbula used in the Roman period in the Ravenna environment, that was similar to the Venice Lagoon, was the prototype of the gondola. The Gondola was first mentioned in 1094, and the contemporary mosaics of San Marco represent a small Venetian boat identical to the cymbula.

4.2 The gondola “arched type” (from 1465 to the end of the 16th century)

44We know the shape of the ancient gondolas from pictorial sources that can be reproduced several times (e.g., books or maps reproduced in print or copied, with watercolour illustrations, wood engravings), or created as single copy (such as paintings on wood, canvas or frescoes). As these two representations present different problems, especially due to misleading dating for the re-use of the woodcuts in late prints, or made by foreign engravers not familiar with Venice, or other issues, it is convenient to discuss these two kinds of sources separately.

4.2.1 Representations in books and maps

Rolewinck

45The earliest representations of the gondola are figures (i.e., wood engravings), illustrating some books. The gondola was light and elegant, thin and arched, and was considered as the main symbol of the city.

  • 11 The Muffel’s manuscript is known as codex “Egerton 1900”.

46The earliest book that represented Venice and its boats was written by Gabriel Muffel who reported a journey he made to the Holy Land in 1465. The book is entitled “Journey from Venice to Palestine, Mount Sinai and Egypt”11 (ca. 1467) and is illustrated with water-colours. The page with Venice reports two big vessels (Fig. 8a), but the pages illustrating the Venetian cities of Pola (Fig. 8b) and Zara on the Dalmatia coast include some cymbula-like gondolas. It must be said that the book was written in German and illuminated in Passau (Germany). Who made the miniatures was not familiar with Venice, and reproduced the images with incorrect details, as can be deduced from the houses emerging from water in Fig. 8a, and the German-like architectonic features. The gondolas are correctly represented for one rower but incorrectly with double sculls, where the short oars are pulled towards the sitting rower, who goes backwards. As opposed, the gondola has only one long oar that is pushed forward by a standing rower. This error is typical for people not familiar with the particular Venetian rowing technique. However, apart from such mistakes, this is the earliest representation of gondolas combining boat name and illustration.

Fig. 8 (a, b) – Venetian boats represented by Muffel (ca. 1467)

Fig. 8 (a, b) – Venetian boats represented by Muffel (ca. 1467)

(a): Venice, with an unlikely urban landscape and two sailing boats. (b): Pola, with three cymbula-like gondolas

Credit: Manuscript Egerton 1900, British Library, London

47The second representation has been found in a book with chronicles including Venice, written by the monk and historian Werner Rolewinck (1479), and the woodcut engraver was Nicolaus Götz. Both of them lived in Germany, once again not familiar with Venice, so that they reproduced the quay of San Marco inverted specularly, with the right side to the left (Fig. 9a). The book was then printed in Venice, by Georg Walch, also not Venetian; he did not care about the mistake, or considered that the book had an audience unable to identify the error. However, differently from Muffel, the rower is represented correctly, standing on the stern, with only one long oar. The next two editions, i.e., Rolewinck 1480 and 1481 (Fig. 9b), were printed by Erhard Ratdolt in Venice. The drawing is very similar, with the same graphic style, six gondolas and some buildings added to the view, all conveniently positioned. Five years later, the historian Jacopo Filippo Foresti (1486, 1492) from Bergamo published a book of chronicles, printed by Bernardino Benali in Venice, where the first edition (1486) used the same image as Rolewinck (1480) but with mirror reflection (Fig. 9c), while the second edition (1492) has the correct view. This indicates that printers used to share or to sell their woodcuts that were used for years by apparently independent sources. This makes difficult to determine the exact period in which drawings corresponded to the contemporary reality, and may generate errors in dating.

Fig. 9 (a, b, c) Arched gondolas (Rolenwinck, 1479-1486)

Fig. 9 (a, b, c) – Arched gondolas (Rolenwinck, 1479-1486)

(a): An early gondola image (Rolewinck 1479) with mirrored building background. (b): The second edition of Rolewinck (1480) with the background drawn correctly. (c): The Rolewinck (1480) woodcut used in Foresti (1486) with mirrored building background.

Credits: (a) and (c) from Masséna Essling (1907-14), Gallica.bnf.fr / BNF

Breydenbach & Reüwich

48The next gondolas appear in the book by Bernhard von Breydenbach (1486) Peregrinatio in Terram Sanctam” (Pilgrimage to the Holy Land), another religious German traveler imitating Muffel (ca. 1467). Breydenbach journeyed to the holy land in 1483-4, passing through Venice where he stayed for weeks and this is the reason why the book includes a very accurate panoramic view of Venice and its landscape. Illustrations were engraved by the designer of woodcuts Erhardum Reüwich. The engraving showing Venice (Fig. 10) is wide, i.e., 160 cm x 30 cm, and includes the landscape, the City and its buildings, all accurately represented, as well as military and commercial vessels moored in the port. Initially, the book and its illustrations were printed in Mainz. The book had an international success, was translated into several languages, and printed in various European cities. The woodcuts were used or reproduced for several editions. The map of Venice was originally in black and white, but a number of them have been individually hand colored with watercolor paints.

Fig. 10 – Panoramic view of Venice by Breydenbach & Reüwich (1486)

Fig. 10 – Panoramic view of Venice by Breydenbach & Reüwich (1486)

Credit: Gallica.bnf.fr / BNF

Fig. 11 – Example of related map-landscape (1486-1500)

Fig. 11 – Example of related map-landscape (1486-1500)

(a): The prototype: detail of Breydenbach & Reüwich (1486). (b): The map in Schedel (1493). (c) The same in Schedel (1500)

Source: Gallica.bnf.fr / BNF

49The panoramic view by Breydenbach & Reüwich was considered a leading reference and the whole landscape, or the spectacular detail of San Marco with the Ducal Palace, were frequently imitated. Probably the best maps are in Schedel (1493 and 1500) (Fig. 11) with engravings by Michael Wolgemut, Wilhelm Pleydenwurff and Albrecht Dürer. Please note that in front of the quay of San Marco there is a wooden dock with some moored gondolas, as it was in Rolewinck as well. In addition, the gondolas in Breydenbach & Reüwich (Fig.11a) and in Schedel (Fig. 11b,c) are identical between them.

Fig. 12 (a, b, c) – Views of San Marco with arched gondolas (1490, 1517, 1564)

Fig. 12 (a, b, c) – Views of San Marco with arched gondolas (1490, 1517, 1564)

(a) : Illustration in Foresti printed Rusconi (1490). (b) : Front cover of Montalboddo (1517); (c): Bianco (1564) printed by Zoppino & Di Polo, Venice

Credits: © Biblioteca Antica Seminario Vescovile, Padua

50Breydenbach & Reüwich inspired other views of Venice for small illustrations in books, e.g., the historian Jacopo Filippo Foresti from Bergamo (Fig. 12a) printed in 1490 and 1492 by Bernardino Rizzo in Venice, or even front covers, e.g., the cosmographer Fracanzio da Montalboddo (Fig. 12b) and Father Noe Bianco (Fig. 12c). The last two books were printed several times. Montalboddo was printed by Giorgio Rusconi, Venice, starting from 1517. Bianco was printed many times by Niccolò d’Aristotele de’ Rossi nicknamed Zoppino & Vincenzo Di Polo, Venice, starting from 1518. It is evident that the same woodcut was used for over a century, till the 1637 edition printed by Imberti. The use of the same wood cut does not necessarily imply that the gondola remained unchanged as they were represented. However, the book of Bianchi was revised in the edition printed in 1668 by Remondino, Bassano (Fig. 12d), who made a correction to the decorations of the gondola on the right hand, to update them to the new style. This revised woodcut, with evident signs of use and aging, continued to be used in later editions till 1790.

Fig.12 (d) – Comparison between Bianco (1518) printed by Zoppino & Di Polo

Fig.12 (d) – Comparison between Bianco (1518) printed by Zoppino & Di Polo

Note the gondola on the right side has added the iron decoration on the bow and the curl on stern. The writings have spelling changed from old Venetian to contemporary Venetian. and Bianco (1668) printed by Remondino, Bassano

Credits: 1518, Bibliotheca Terrae Sanctae, Jerusalem

51It may be noted that Foresti (1490) represented some gondolas, all without cabin. On the other hand, both Montalboddo and Bianco represented two gondolas, one with cabin and another without cabin. These gondolas were arched and pointed at both ends as in Breydenbach & Reüwich.

52Among the woodcut engravings so far considered, Breydenbach & Reüwich (1486) constitutes a primary source in which the gondola is presented with its main characteristics, i.e., very similar to the cymbula of the Apostles in Fig. 7a. The shape of the gondola was inspired to a circular geometry, like a Crescent Moon. The drawing is not an overly simplified scheme because other more complex ships such as merchant Coccas and military Galee Sottili (not shown in this figure) are drawn with a wealth of detail. This suggests that, at the end of the 15th century, the shape of the gondola was not dissimilar from the origins.

53The detail of Breydenbach & Reüwich in (Fig. 13) shows a wooden dock on the quay of San Marco, with four moored gondolas. It is interesting to see that, for defence against the storm surges, Venice had quays and docks in elevated position above the sea level (e.g., 1.5 m or more). Two gondolas have a cabin with ceiling, and are open on both sides (like Fig. 4e and Fig. 6), and two gondolas are without cabin. Therefore, since the origins, the cabin was a removable option. In the figure, the first gondola has three persons sitting on the cabin, while the fourth is entering, i.e., cabins were for four passengers.

Fig. 13 – Detail of the wooden dock with four gondolas moored, two with and two without cabin (1486)

Fig. 13 – Detail of the wooden dock with four gondolas moored, two with and two without cabin (1486)

Prow and stern are quite symmetrical with flat, walkable breasthook. On the front gondola, a passenger is entering, using the breasthook as a walkway.

Breydenbach & Reüwich, 1486

54A remarkable information is given: how people entered the gondola. In this gondola, we see that the breasthook of the rising bow was used as an inclined walkway to reach the dock, or to enter the boat, as the fourth passenger is doing. The breasthook is the triangular timber plate placed across the stem of a ship to strengthen the fore part and unite the bows on each side; it may hold the load of a person. The similarly raised stern was for the rower, but could have the same function. The poet Petro Aretino, from Florence, wrote: “I too, when I'm in Venice, laugh at the strangers who come out of the gondola by the stern” (Aretino 1542). When a passenger wants to get on board, extends his/her hand and is helped by the gondolier, like the important person who is entering the first gondola of the engraving. On the second gondola, we see the first of the three steps of the technique used by the gondolier to enter. He first sits on the dock and places his feet (in the drawing he is placing his right foot) on the bow breasthook. After, with his arms, he will give himself a light push from the dock and he will find himself standing on the upper part of the bow. Then, he will be able to get off with his own feet, as the fourth passenger of the first gondola is doing.

55By calculating the ratio between the unknown dimensions of the gondola and the rower (supposed to be 1.70 m tall, with 10% uncertainty), the gondola length may be estimated around 5.5±0.5 m (i.e., 16 Venice feet) and the hull depth 60±6 cm (1.8 Venice feet). The uncertainty band might be assessed around ±10%.

De’ Barbari

56Jacopo de’ Barbari engraved a famous eye-bird Map entitled “Venetie MC” (i.e., Venice 1500), printed in Venice by Anton Kolb in 1498‑1500 (Fig. 14a). This map is gigantic i.e., 134 x 282 cm and the original wooden blocks are kept at the Correr Museum, Venice. Prints of it are kept at the Marciana National Library, Venice; Fondazione Querini Stampalia, Venice; Albertina, Vienna; Rijksmuseum Amsterdam; British Museum, London; Minneapolis Institute of Art; National Gallery of Arts, Washington DC. The City appears with its enormous port, with several large roundish transport vessels (named Coccas, see Levi, 2011), two military rowing boats with rostrum, named Galee Sotttili, and small connection boats. Some vessels are docked for commercial operations, other are kept isolated at a certain distance from the city for prudential quarantine against epidemics.

57A large number of small connection boats are travelling in the water, with one or two rowers (Fig. 14b). Some boats have a cabin, others are without it. Although images are small and stylized, from the particular shape and the way of rowing, with the rower standing on the stern, most of these small boats seem to be gondolas. De’ Barbari makes clear the difference between the dimensions of a gondola conceived for the shallow Lagoon waters, and the large Coccas for the open sea.

58In the short period from Breydenbach & Reüwich (1486) to de’ Barbari (1500), we assist to a certain hull transformation. Initially, the gondola had a markedly curved shape, like a Crescent Moon, while in 1500 the curvature was reduced. We will see that his tendency will continue over the 16th century.

Fig. 14 (a, b) – Map of Venice by Jacopo de’ Barbari (1500)

(a): Bird-eye Map12; (b): detail with large roundish transport ships named Coccas, two Galee Sotttili and two gondolas, i.e.: (C) with cabin and single rower; (W) without cabin and two rowers

Credits. (a): Google Digital Art Project © Minneapolis Institute of Art; Original blocks are in the Correr Museum, Venice; (b) private collection

4.2.2 Representations in paintings

59Paintings of oil on canvas provide further information, with better refined details. The earliest painting traditionally interpreted with gondolas (Penzo, 1999; Munerotto, 2010) is by Vittore Carpaccio, i.e., “Hunting in the Lagoon” (Fig. 15a), kept at the J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, California. Some rich persons with servants are fishing with arch, arrows and cormorants, like in China (Fig. 15b). These boats are similar between them (as well as to the Asian ones in Fig. 4), but not identical, and might be gondolas, sandolos, or other prototypes. The attribution is uncertain because they differ from the very arched gondola of Breydenbach & Reüwich: here the boats are almost flat or only slightly arched, while in Breydenbach & Reüwich were curved like a Crescent.

Fig. 15 (a, b, c) – Boats for bowhunting and cormorants (1490-95)

Fig. 15 (a, b, c) – Boats for bowhunting and cormorants (1490-95)

(a): Early boats for shallow waters in Carpaccio “Hunting in the Lagoon”13 (1490-95, detail). (b): A boat with cormorants for fishing in China. (c): A sandolo, with hull similar to that of gondolas; two gondolas are visible in the background. The rower is standing inside the boat, not on the stern.

Credits: (a): Digital image courtesy of the Getty's Open Content Program, © J. Paul Getty Trust. Digital image courtesy of the Getty's Open Content Program; (b): Photo: Maciej Cisowski, Pexels; (c): photo Didier Descouens, CC BY-SA 4

60Elements that may associate these boats to the gondola are the small dimension, probably the flat bottom that is not visible, and the particular style of rowing, that is typical Venetian, but not exclusive for the gondola. The early gondola and the sandolo had several similarities. The main difference was that the gondola had both ends pointed, while the sandolo had pointed bow but flat and open stern, like the tail feathers of a bird in flight. Later on, the gondola had an amazing evolution. In Fig. 15a, the boat on the top, label S, is very similar to a modern sandolo (Fig. 15c). The sandolo may have one or more rowers, and the rowers may use only one oar, like a gondola or, more frequently, two crossed oars named “alla valesana”, i.e., typical of who lived in the “valli da pesca”, i.e., the fenced off areas of the Lagoon marshes, used for fishing, or fish farming. The sandolo may be built with larger dimensions and the large ones can be equipped with sail.

61In the second Carpaccio’s painting “Miracle of the Relic of the Cross at the Rialto Bridge” (Fig. 16 a,b), kept at the Gallerie dell’Accademia, Venice, all boats have the same curved hull like a Crescent, and only one rower dressed with brightly coloured livery. Some of these boats have a cabin, either a ceiling covering the top, or fully covering both sides. Some others are without cabin. All of them are certainly gondolas, with standard hull, and removable cabin with adjustable cover, i.e., only at the top to have a complete panoramic view, or even sideways to be sheltered from prying eyes, like the two ladies in (Fig. 16b). In the cabin, seats were for two persons sitting side by side, for a maximum of four passengers on two seats. Note that all gondolas had the hull and the gunwale plane inclined, with the right side closer to the waterline, for the asymmetrical distribution of the load of the rower. This uneven load accumulated on the rear caused the stern to be lower and the bow higher.

Fig. 16 (a, b) – Arched gondolas with and without cabin, Carpaccio (1496)

Fig. 16 (a, b) – Arched gondolas with and without cabin, Carpaccio (1496)

Early gondolas with and without cabin, in Carpaccio, “Miracle of the Relic of the Cross at the Rialto Bridge”14 (details, c. 1496). Part (b) continues and expands part (a).

Credits: Digital image courtesy of the Ministero dei Beni e delle Attività Culturali, © Gallerie dell’Accademia, Venice, Archivio fotografico G.A.VE.

62A painting by Giovanni Mansueti (1494), i.e., the “Procession of the Holy Cross”15 (Fig. 17 a), also kept at the Gallerie dell’Accademia, Venice, reports two gondolas, with four passengers and a rower in each one. Unfortunately, in the restored painting, the gondolas and the water apparently have the same black color, and the contour lines are undistinguishable. The situation is different in some old pictures in black and white, one by Brogi16, available at the Fondazione Zeri, University of Bologna, and another in Masséna Essling (1907-1914), available at Gallica, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, that we have considered. It has been possible to follow the contour lines and highlight the shape of the two gondolas using Photoshop facilities. The gondolas are viewed from an elevated position: one from the front and another from rear, and it is possible to see inside them. Very likely, in the gondola on the right side, the rods at the rower’s feet are the kit of swamp reeds that constitute the horizontal framing of the cabin (Fig. 6), at that moment disassembled to leave free view.

Fig. 17 (a, b) – Arched gondolas with and without cabin, Mansueti (1494, 1502)

Fig. 17 (a, b) – Arched gondolas with and without cabin, Mansueti (1494, 1502)

(a): Detail of two gondolas without cabin in Mansueti (1494) “Procession of the Holy Cross”. Note the kit of swamp reeds (highlighted yellow) that constitute the horizontal framing of the cabin. (b) Detail of a gondola in Mansueti (1502) “Miraculous healing of the daughter of Benvegnudo da San Polo”. The forcola has two notches (red)

Credits: old black and white pictures from Masséna Essling (1907-14), available at Gallica.bnf.fr / BNF. Paintings at the Gallerie dell’Accademia, Venice

63Another similar image has been considered from Masséna Essling (1907-14), i.e., the Giovanni Mansueti (1502) “Miraculous healing of the daughter of Benvegnudo da San Polo” (Fig. 17b) at the Gallerie dell’Accademia17, Venice. The gondola is viewed from back, as it can be recognized from the forcola (red) with two oar positions. The gondolier is mounting the awning for the ceiling on the cabin.

64In another painting by Gentile Bellini, “Miracle of the Relic of the Holy Cross at the Bridge of San Lorenzo”18, depicted 1500, also kept at the Gallerie dell’Accademia, Venice, a number of gondolas without cabin, or closely similar boats, are represented.

65By calculating the ratio between the gondola and the rower in the paintings, the length can be estimated about 6±0.6 m (i.e. 18 Venice feet, in agreement with Breydenbach & Reüwich); the width 140±14 cm (4 Venice feet). This width is crucial, not only because it allows two persons staying on the same seat in the cabin, but especially because with the flat bottom the boat sways with undamped oscillations. If this width is reduced, the instability will increase.

66Benedetto Bordone represented a view of Chioggia printed in 1527, with two moored gondolas, without cabin (Fig. 18). The gondola shape is the Breydenbach & Reüwich type, i.e., small, light, and arched as already commented. This shape had some advantages: the inclined prow was useful to enter, and the prow-stern symmetry could be advantageous to go either in the front or back direction, simply exchanging position to the forcolas, without needing to turn the boat: a very useful characteristic for use in narrow rivers. Bordone was manuscript editor in Venice, miniaturist and cartographer and this publication would lead to conclude that in 1527 the arched gondolas were still in use. However, Bordone retired in his last years and died in 1530. In the next section, we will see that the engraving must have been made at least 18 years before this publication.

Fig. 18 – Two arched gondolas, early 1500s

Fig. 18 – Two arched gondolas, early 1500s

Two moored gondolas without cabin

Bordone 1527, © Biblioteca Universitaria, Padua

4.3. The military gondola (1509 to the end of the 17th century)

4.3.1 The obscure period of the League of Cambrai and the transformation of the 16th century

67In the 16th century, the gondola had a remarkable transformation with the hull almost straight in the central part, but with bow and stern strongly curved and vertically raised like a swan neck. It was impossible to enter walking on them, but it was necessary to enter only from the sides, like today.

68Iron bands with short rods forming a rostrum were applied at both ends, but the sources do not provide the explanation why. The iron bands were useful for tying the gondola when it was moored, but especially when it was dragged by a ship with a cable, as already seen in the translation of Saint Mark's relics (Fig. 7d), or to go up the rivers against the current, dragged by a horse that advanced along the riverside. The iron elements were symmetrical and could not have the same function as today, i.e., to balance the asymmetric load of the rower on the left side of the stern. The iron bands have been interpreted in different ways, most frequently a decoration representing a dolphin or a seahorse with a curved and crested neck and a pointed muzzle, as if to say that the gondola is like the horse-drawn carriage of the Lagoon. The dolphin is the most popular interpretation, preferred since the ancient times, because the dolphins are considered cheerful and fast, friends of sailors, and have saved their lives during some shipwrecks. It is often said that a gondola is like a dolphin, or represents a dolphin. Cesare Vecellio (1590) wrote: “The servant who rows the stern is dedicated only to the maintenance of the boat, to keep it in order and to keep the bow and stern irons shiny, which must appear to be silver.” Their shiny, silver-like appearance is a further link with dolphins. However, another hypothesis is advanced here for the origin of the irons, i.e., the protruding irons could be interpreted in aggressive or defensive terms, like the Viking/Norman vessels.

69It is difficult to establish a precise date in which the gondola was restyled because the written sources do not explicitly specify the date and reason for this modification, and the pictorial sources show a gap between the end of the previous style and the beginning of the new one. The pictorial sources seem to suggest the year 1527, i.e., the last etching by Bordone as the latest documentation of the arched type but we will see that this dating is not compatible with the historical context and we should conclude that the print in 1527 has likely used dated engravings, including the gondolas presented there.

70The transformation of the gondola is surprising for a number of reasons:

  • The change was rapid, and concerned all gondolas and all the gondolas with the previous style disappeared completely.

  • The number of gondolas in Venice in the 16th century was not justified, and excessive for the actual needs of the population. It should be considered that in the 16th century the citizens of the Venice Republic were 100,000 (Beltrami, 1954) and the number of gondolas arrived to 10,000 (Sansovino, 1581), i.e., one every 10 citizens, without considering that there were several other types of boats. It is not justified that every citizen had a boat.

  • It is surprising that neither private nor official documents explain this transformation. This suggests that this quick and impressive transformation was necessary, or even vital for the survival of the Republic, and that it was done in absolute secrecy. Following the Venice laws, if a sensitive problem that could affect the security of the state was mentioned, the penalty was immediate and capital, without needing trials. At a time when several cultured people were writing diaries, chronicles and histories concerning Venice, this is the only cogent reason that may justify this silence.

71This required a careful and systematic analysis of the 16th century documents to find relevant dates and explanations.

72Originally, gondolas were not conceived as war boats, but they could reach high speed, and after having been restyled with vertical and robust prow and stern, they could generate violent impacts against enemy boats and the metal bars and beaks could operate like a Roman rostrum. It is clearly documented that gondolas were engaged in some military operations. The gondola could have had a restyling to be prepared for war. The question is: when? Can we find confirmation?

73A series of wars was fought against the Ottoman Empire (1463-79; 1499-1503; 1537-40; 1570-73 and others later on). Sanuto (1496-1533) reports several actions made with gondolas when the fleet was fighting on sea against the Ottoman Empire, especially from 1499 to 1503, either for scouting, quick transport of soldiers, ambassadors or even for war actions. This use required gondolas capable of facing the open sea, even if not too rough.

  • 19 Known also as Holy League. In English, the locality Cambrai is popularly named Camerick.
  • 20 Agnadello lies on the Po Valley, some 20 km east of Milano.

74The most important war was the League of Cambrai19 (10th December 1508), a coalition against Venice composed of Pope Julius II, Maximilian I emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, Louis XII of France, Ferdinand II of Aragon, Spain and some duchies bordering Venice. This war engaged Venice and the surrounding cities (Fig. 19) from 1509 to 1516. The turning point was on May 14th, 1509, in which the Allies of the League of Cambrai won an important battle in Agnadello20 and defeated the Venetian land army. The Venetians decided as much as possible to fight with naval means, in which they excelled in all the battles on the open sea.

  • 21 Barbota: a ship on which a leather cover is applied to protect against arquebus and cannon shots.
  • 22 Brigantino: small low-board vessel, with a single deck and three masts, suitable for fast corsair a (...)

75The Diaries of Marin Sanuto (1496-1533) report the activity in the military shipyard, e.g., “25 October 1509: today the Arsenal started working hard and in great secrecy to set up a fleet of barbote21 and brigantini22, to be used against Ferrara”. The effort was to build a new fleet suitable for rivers. In the second half of November 1509, the Senate ordered the Commander-in-chief of the Venice troops that, as soon as he had received the infantrymen in the army, he should enter the river Po. The Senate commanded to plunder, and wreak havoc on both riverbeds, as far as he could go. In addition, the Senate issued a public edict in Piazza San Marco: all Venice citizens were authorized to go privately with their own boats and gondolas, going up through the Po and raid the Ferrara countryside. Anything they could steal was recognized as their property, provided that they acted in coordination with the Commander of the army. This edict was followed by a very large number of people with their own gondolas and other boats. (Bembo 1552). However, the enemies and the war scene were inland, so the Venetians build a light fleet, constituted of small galleys and light boats to go up the rivers Brenta, Adige and Po, destroy the enemy's crops and attack the cities, e.g., Ferrara on the right-hand side of the Po river (Fig. 19). The Adige river belonged to the Venetian Republic, while the Po river constituted the southern border and Ferrara was near the river, on the opposite side. The war against Ferrara (1509-1512), gave the opportunity to revise and test the structure of light boats.

Fig. 19 – Map of Italy in 1500, before the League of Cambrai

Credits: Wikipedia

76From the contemporary documents and the reports of historians (e.g., Sanuto (1496-1533), Bembo (1552), Guicciardini (1561), Guglielmotti (1876)), we can learn a number of actions strictly conditioned by the boats, that determined some characteristics.

77These military and raiding actions required small but strong boats that contained a critical mass of rowers-soldiers, and the spoils to take away. This implied that the boats were larger and more resistant than the traditional small gondola, and explains the new larger model presented by Theodoro de Nicolò.

78The small boats were used to build pontoon bridges. The gunwale of the traditional small boats, including gondolas, was arched, and this made impossible to build mobile pontoon bridges, tying the boats together and placing planks on the gunwale (Fig. 20). This requirement prompted all boats to be made with flat gunwale. The symmetrical rostrums at the bow and stern made it possible to tie the boats between them and to the banks, so as to resist the current of the river.

Fig. 20 – Military gondolas used for pontoon bridges (1509)

Fig. 20 – Military gondolas used for pontoon bridges (1509)

Hypothetical reconstruction of a pontoon bridge made with gondolas tied together at the T of the rostrum, and planks resting on the hull.

Credit: the author

79The delta of the Po river is close to Venice: 60 km, and Ferrara 100 km. The two cities used the same boats for fishing and transport, and it was impossible to distinguish whether they had people from Venice or Ferrara. It was necessary to recognize at a distance who were the friends and who were the enemies, before shooting or ramming each other. This was an excellent reason to create corsair boats with distinctive shape, e.g., the swan-necked bow and stern, with rostrums. This new boat substituted the previous gondolas, that were dismissed.

80Returning to the war and the river raids, the Duke Alfonso d’Este and Pope Giulio II brought in numerous ground troops and artillery. They fought from the river banks, throwing various projectiles, arrows and cannon fire, against the fleet. To ride in the river, the Venetian fleet had light guns, and the normal civil boats had poor weapons. The fleet could not count on its skill in seafaring manoeuvres and retreat to a safe distance because of the confined space of the river that made impossible to get away from the gun range. On December 22nd 1509, in locality Polesella on the Po river, the Venetians lost 13 light galleys and many small boats. The Ferrara citizens exhibited the galley rostrums in the cathedral and later in their museum (d’Este, 1509; Avventi, 1846; Pesci, 1869).

81Unfortunately for us, all reports were focused on the military galleys, disregarding the small, private civil boats, and how they were prepared for fighting. We only know that in this period Venice underwent an intense activity to produce, adapt and militarize its boats.

82The experience with Ferrara was useful in 1537‑1540, with another war on the Dalmatian coast that was indented, with small islands and shallow waters. In this context, manageable, fast and flat-bottomed boats were very useful.

4.3.2 The gondola for military use, “big corsair” type (1509-second half of the 16th century)

83As explained by Sanuto (1496-1533), the characteristics of these boats constituted a military secret and could not be disclosed. This explains the complete absence of information for the first half of the century. The first documentation concerning the novel military gondola is a strictly reserved manuscript written by a foreman ship's carpenter of the Arsenal, the military shipyard of the Venice Republic, named Theodoro de Nicolò (1550 ca.) entitled “Arte de far Vaselli o instructione sul modo di fabbricar Galee” (Art of Making Vessels or Instructions to build Galleys), kept at the Marciana National Library, Venice. It should be noted that the description of this gondola is part of a manual which gives the technical details for building a galley and its accompanying boat. Therefore, the dimensions of this gondola are referred to this context, i.e. a particular gondola kept aboard the galley, and not in general to the normal gondola of citizens.

84The manuscript gives technical details about the hull, excluding the terminal irons. It also made a quoted presentation with both the longitudinal and transverse cross sections (Fig. 21), that are quoted. In addition, the text reports these as well as other technical dimensions useful for building the boat. The key dimensions are: length: 28 Venice feet (9.73 m); width 5 Venice feet (174 cm); hull depth 2 Venice feet (70 cm); stern height up to the ‘dolphin’ (i.e. the iron) 5 ½ Venice feet (191 cm); bow up to the dolphin 4 Venice feet (139 cm). We see that in the technical drawing the stern was taller than the bow; however, once the gondola was floating with the load of the rower positioned on the stern, the two extremes reached the same level.

  • 23 The bissona (litterally: great water snake, for its speed and maneuverability) is a boat similar to (...)

85These dimensions are surprising, because the length is about twice the civilian gondolas generally represented in paintings and engravings. The gondolas built in the Arsenal had size adapted to the vessel (generally 24 Venice feet, i.e. 834 cm) and had to face the open sea for scouting, military or diplomatic missions, as witnessed by Sanuto (1496-1533). This particular use can justify a larger size and more rowers, likely 8, as in the ‘bissona’23. Normal gondolas, for civilian use, were built in private yards, with smaller size.

Fig. 21 Scheme of the wooden hull of the big military gondola built in the Arsenal in the mid 16th century

Fig. 21 – Scheme of the wooden hull of the big military gondola built in the Arsenal in the mid 16th century

The part highlighted violet in the center of the drawing is the transverse cross section (width). The scale of the transverse section is reported under the hull. (Theodoro de Nicolò 1550 ca.)

Credits: Marciana National Library, Venice, ms. it. cl. IV, cod. 26 (=5131) carte 18v-19r

86The restyled gondola was similar to the ancient Viking vessels, later used by Normans when they conquered England, and sailed the Mediterranean, establishing the kingdom of Sicily that included the whole Southern Italy, or made pirate raids in southern France. The Norman fleet was composed of a huge number of small commandos on small Viking vessels (Fig. 22a) acting simultaneously on a wide front, vey difficult to control, because cannon shots could only sink a small boat, which was irrelevant in the context of a large fleet. Cannons could not have the devastating impact as when fired at a large ship or galley. Any defence against Norman corsair attacks was blunt weapons.

Fig. 22 (a) – The Norman fleet composed of commandos on small Viking vessels (1130s)

Fig. 22 (a) – The Norman fleet composed of commandos on small Viking vessels (1130s)

Credits: Miniature dated 1130s, Miscellany on the life of St. Edmund (MS M.736), Pierpont Morgan Library and Museum, New York

87A famous ancient representation of the Normans’ ships is shown in the Bayeux tapestry (Fig. 22b) of the 11th century, kept at the Centre Guillaume-le-Conquérant, Bayeux, Normandie. In the figure, the shown ship has bow and stern with the same essential decoration, while the stern of the next has a dragon and is towing a small boat, like the gondola of the translation of Saint Mark's relics in Fig. 7d. A comparison between the Norman boat of Bayeux, and the Venetian military gondola (Franco 1610) is reported in (Fig. 22c). Both boats have been cleaned up by removing the people on board, the anchor and the cabin to highlight the hull, but leaving the rowers on stern to show the dimensional proportions. The similarity is evident.

Fig. 22 (b) – Viking vessel in the Bayeux Tapestry (11th century)

Fig. 22 (b) – Viking vessel in the Bayeux Tapestry (11th century)

Viking vessel, with a smaller connection boat. (Bayeux Tapestry Museum, official digital representation of the Bayeux Tapestry—11th century.

Credits: City of Bayeux, DRAC Normandie, University of Caen Normandie, CNRS, Ensicaen, Photos: 2017—La Fabrique de patrimoines en Normandie

88Fig. 22 (c)Comparison between a Viking vessel (Bayeux) and a gondola military type (16th-17th century)

Comparison between the Norman boat of Bayeux, and the Venetian military gondola (Franco, 1610). Both boats have been cleaned up by removing the people on board, the anchor and the cabin to highlight the hull shape. The rowers on stern have been left as a dimension reference.

89The Venetians had direct contacts with the Normans and several opportunities to fight against them, especially when their corsair ships sailed up the Adriatic Sea, from Puglia to the Dalmatian coast. The Norman kingdom left several images of their ships in Italy, e.g. the hull of the Noah’s Ark (Fig. 22d) in the mosaics of the Palatine Chapel of the Royal Palace of Normans, Palermo, as well as some graffiti in a room of the basement of the Royal Palace, or a bas relief with two Norman vessels carved in the stone of the capital of the cathedral of Cefalù, Sicily.

Fig. 22 (d)The Noah’s Ark shaped as a Viking vessel (1130s)

Fig. 22 (d) – The Noah’s Ark shaped as a Viking vessel (1130s)

The Noah’s Ark with hull constituted of a Viking vessel

Credits: Mosaic dating 1130s, Palatine Chapel, Royal Palace of Normans, Palermo. Photo: Jean-Pierre Dalbéra, Wikipedia.

90The Venetians transformed a light boat in a narrow and robust war boat, with low load capacity, but high speed, for special missions. The Viking/Norman model was an excellent reference because these ships were based on a simple structure with bow-stern symmetry; they were very fast and easily manageable; they could navigate both in the open sea and in rivers to attack inland areas, villages and towns; they were very convenient to transport commandos of few men. This model was what the Venetians needed.

91In the second half of the century, the war was over and the Venetians returned to a normal life, except for the black plague which ravaged the city and killed at least 1/3 of the population. The time of peace removed the military secrecy. The gondola started to appear timidly as small schematized drawings in the second half of the 16th century, and in full details near the end of the century. For instance, in 1566 the engraver Paolo Forlani from Verona, but active in Venice, engraved on copper an eye-bird map of Venice with gondolas of the new type (Fig. 23). The gondolas are drawn small but clearly distinguishable and the expanded view shows that they changed shape, with the hull horizontal, bow and stern symmetrical, similar to swan necks, and with protruding beaks. The new gondola type is better recognizable in a painting, oil on canvas, attributed to Battista d'Angolo nicknamed del Moro, entitled “Recruitment of Venetian troops on the Molo”, and kept at the Gallerie dell’Accademia, Venice. The official catalogue24 dates it from 1570 to 1573. This painting is followed by a series of similar images by: Georg Braun (1572); Joris Hoefnagel (1572); Thomaso Procacci (1572); Cesare Vecellio (1590); on 1593 by Andrea Michieli nicknamed Vicentino; on 1595 by Leandro Bassano and so on, as discussed later.

Fig. 23 Detail of the map of Venice dedicated to Mr Girolamo Muraro (masked irons, 1566)

Fig. 23 – Detail of the map of Venice dedicated to Mr Girolamo Muraro (masked irons, 1566)

Engraved on copper by Paolo Forlani (1566) and printed by Bolognino Zaltieri in Venice. Size: 73 x 43 cm. Below an expanded detail of some gondolas.

Credits: Gallica.bnf.fr / BNF

4.3.3 The gondola returned to small size and civil use, “small corsair” type (2nd half of the 16th century – 1699 ca)

  • 25 Note that Venice was an international city, with many (rich) foreign people, that needed assistance (...)

92The big military gondolas that survived to the war continued to be used, as we find documented by Franco (1610), who reported a scene of people enjoying the cool of the evening by boating in hot summers. Sansovino (1581) wrote that the gondola was the most popular boat, generally served by two rowers, employed either for important or everyday use. This was represented by Franco, and the legend in Fig. 24 a is: “In this way, in the evenings of the hot summer, till midnight, people enjoy very much the fresh air of the canals, with music played with various instruments and singers, staying in the company of courtesan25 ladies; often people dine on the boat with great pleasure”. All the boats in this figure are normal civilian gondolas, except two. One is the boat with musicians (label MG, Fig. 24b), longer and wider, hosting singers, a harpsicord, and musicians playing violin, cello, guitar and flute, i.e. seven persons are visible in addition to the rower. Very likely, this was a big military gondola survived to the war against Ferrara. These continued to be used until they were efficient; after, they were dismissed. From then on, the gondolas with small size dominated, because they were better respondent to the everyday use and the Lagoon environment. The second different boat (label C, Fig. 24b), also with curved ends, hosts people having dinner. This is a boat for the transport of goods, very likely a caorlina, that was probably employed on war actions because it is provided of rostrums at both ends.

Fig. 24 (a) – Summer evenings on boats (1610)

Fig. 24 (a) – Summer evenings on boats (1610)

People enjoying the cool of the evening by boating in hot summers (Franco, 1610)

Credits: Internet Culturale © Marciana National Library, Venice, Italy. CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Fig. 24 (b) – Detail of the large boat with musicians

Fig. 24 (b) – Detail of the large boat with musicians

Detail of the big military gondola [MG in (a)] with musicians playing harpsicord, violin, cello, guitar and flute (Franco, 1610)

Credits: Internet Culturale © Marciana National Library, Venice, Italy. CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

  • 26 The decrees can be found in the Marciana National Library, Venice.
  • 27 Decree of the Provveditori alle Pompe, dated 11May 1609.

93A series of decrees of the Provveditori alle Pompe26, namely those in 1562, 1609 and 1633, can be considered useful milestones to follow the return of the gondola to the normal use and size. A decree of the Venetian Senate dated 1609 gives useful specifications: “The beaks have been introduced to the irons of the stern and bow of the gondolas for safety reasons. Over time they changed from their original essential role to adornment. These decorative jugs must be completely prohibited: in the future, they will not be permitted to exceed three inches in length and must be blunt.”27 The term “safety” is not clear because it might be intended to be finalized either to iron safety because it is firmly fixed with these nails, or a rostrum for protection of those inside the gondola. However, this is the first written source dealing with irons and beaks. It also specified that these irons were adopted since a long time, and in 1609 their use was changed from essential to decorative.

  • 28 We have reported the English translation by Francis Terne in 1699.

94A memory of the functionality of the structural reinforcement and offensive rostrum of the gondola was also commented by the French traveller Limojon de St Desdier, who visited Venice from 1672 to 1674, when the rostrum had changed shape and gained in elegance, but preserved some technical characteristics. He wrote28:

“The better to strengthen these high and slight ends of the gondola's, against the rough shocks they sometimes occasion each other, as likewise to set off the great iron head, there are fixed under it six other plates of iron at four inches distance each, eight or ten inches long, and something more than three broad, which plates are round and much broader at the out end, than where it is fastened at the head: in short, it is all hammer work, filled and so curiously polished, that it is no ways less becoming to the gondola, than necessary to the safety and strengthening of the prow.” (Limojon de St Desdier 1680).

95In the middle of the century, the historian Leandro Alberti gave a peaceful image of Venice, returned to normality, and the gondolas used for the everyday life: “There are over 8,000 small boats, nicknamed gondolas, some of which are hired for a fee, others belong to the nobles, others to Venetian citizens or to other people.” (Alberti, 1550). Thirty years later, Francesco Sansovino (1581) made an interesting presentation of the common use. He wrote:

“before 1500, the roads in Venice were of bare earth, which turned into mud with the rains. The nobles or the rich people rode on horseback, which ordinary people could not afford. So, the Venetians thought of replacing the horses with gondolas, which were cheap and did not have the problem of mud. Every rich family had one, but the common people could rent a gondola with rower. Little by little, a new look was given to this boat; it was enriched with awnings and seats, and gradually gondolas replaced horses. At that time [i.e., 1581] there were around 9,000-10,000 gondolas in Venice.” (Sansovino, 1581).

96The huge number of gondolas in the 16th century can be explained only with the military employment of this boat. Nowadays gondolas have been estimated to be around 400‑500.

97In the second half of the 16th century, the situation was normalized and the military use lost relevance. The gondola returned to the everyday life of the Venetians and to connect them to the various islands of which Venice was composed. This can justify the return of the gondola to its primitive dimensions, with only one or two rowers and up to four passengers transported.

98The detailed shape assumed by the gondola and its rostrums is shown in an oil on canvas of the Venice fleet welcoming the King of France Henry III in 1574. The author is Andrea Michieli nicknamed Vicentino, and the canvas is in the Four-Door Room of the Ducal Palace, Venice. Although the painting was made some years later, i.e. in 1593, it is certain that all the technical details are precise, for being an official painting of the Ducal Palace. The three gondolas in foreground have been reported in Fig. 25a, with the iron decorations and the forcolas highlighted because the soiling and the ageing of the varnish obscure the image. To make even more evident some details, an accurate engraving of it by Marcovich in Zanotto (1858) (Fig. 25b) has been added with some colours to highlight certain details. The three gondolas A, B, C, are showing their front iron. Two back irons are visible, coloured and label D. Gondola A has bow, iron and forcola consistent between them (i.e. the gondola is moving to left). Gondolas B and C have rowers, forcolas, and the lady in B consistent with stern position (i.e. moving to right). This suggests that the gondolas could move in the front or back direction, simply by changing position to the forcolas. The engraving shows that the tapestry covering the cabin was fastened with a rope (green) to the U-shaped frames (pale green).

Fig. 25 – Detail of the rostrum-iron (1593)

Fig. 25 – Detail of the rostrum-iron (1593)

Credits: (a): Detail of three gondolas in the painting by Andrea Vicentino, dated 1593, in the Ducal Palace, Venice. (b): The engraving by Marcovich in Zanotto (1858). For explanations see text

99Further detailed examples exist, especially wood cuts and copper engravings. For instance, the woodcuts of Cesare Vecellio (1590) (Fig. 26a), or a watercolour by Anonymous (17th century) (Fig. 26b), are similar to the copper engravings by Giacomo Franco (1610) (Fig. 26c). In particular, Franco produced a lot of drawings with gondolas (kept at the Marciana National Library, Venice and at Gallica, Bibliothèque Nationale de France), that show several gondolas taken from different points of view. In these engravings, Vecellio and Franco graphically illustrated scenes of life with the gondola, as described by Sansovino (1581).

Fig. 26 (a) – Gondolas with brides (1590)

Gondolas at the turn between the 16th and 17th century with cabin

Credit: Vecellio 1590, Gallica.bnf.fr / BNF

Fig. 26 (b)

Gondola at the turn between the 16th and 17th century with cabin and two rowers transporting brides

Credits: Anonymous 17th century. Gallica.bnf.fr / BNF

100The Franco’s engravings report technical details that help to understand how a gondola was made. The two gondolas seen from rear in Fig. 27a have a rower, two passengers standing and two sitting in the cabin. The seat back is composed of two boards that fit into the hull side. The U-frame of the felze cabin has a regular array of holes, or indentations, where the horizontal rods were inserted to act as a support for the awning covering (Fig. 6a). These rods were likely constituted of swamp reeds that were freely available, easily replaceable, and resistant. Lateral rods and awning length were regulated to cover both sides, or only the ceiling. In Fig. 27b, a felze cabin is shown with the structural elements only, without awning cover. In Fig. 27c, on the left, a man is carrying a bundle of marsh reeds all calibrated in length and section, very likely the horizontal rods of the cabin. The cabin of the gondola on the right has an additional back awning. This was constituted of a cloth or raw wool fabric, to shelter from the sun on the back (called batticoppa, i.e. sun beating down on the neck) or to keep passengers out of sight.

101In Fig. 27d, the felze cabin demonstrates to have a light but sturdy frame to bring the load of the rover sitting on it.

Fig. 27 (a, b) – Details of gondolas with felze (1610)

Fig. 27 (a, b) – Details of gondolas with felze (1610)

(a): Two gondolas of the early 17th century seen from rear. Violet: he seat back; yellow: the U-frames; red: the ends of horizontal rods. On the bottom: the bows of two gondolas with breasthook (blue) and prow decorations. (b): Gondola with the felze cabin showing the U-frame and the horizontal rods (i.e. swamp reeds), but without awning cover.

Fig. 27 (c, d) – Details of gondolas with felze (1610)

Fig. 27 (c, d) – Details of gondolas with felze (1610)

(c): On the left, a man is carrying a bundle of marsh reeds (yellow). On the right, a back awning named batticoppa (cyan) has been added to the cabin. (d): Fore part of a gondola with highlighted yellow the reeds that constitute the cabin frame, and blue the prow iron.

Credits: Franco (1610); from Gallica, Bibliothèque Nationale de France

102The lower part of the front viewing angle of the gondolier was hidden by the cabin. To avoid collisions, on the bow, the top of the iron decoration reached a level to be visible by the gondolier, indicating the exact position of the prow. This is suggested by the fact that the top of the iron, the upper edge of the cabin and the rower’s eye lie on the same straight line (red line in Fig. 28) in most drawings, at least when the rower is standing vertically (blue line in Fig. 28). In addition, the front of the upper part of the iron, and the rods in front of the bow, lie on the same vertical. In the event of a collision, the metal rods protected the prow. In the next centuries, the problem of not driving blind, but seeing ahead, will be solved with a lower cabin, i.e. the so-called caponera.

Fig. 28Eye-cabin-iron aligned (1610)

Fig. 28 – Eye-cabin-iron aligned (1610)

The top of the front iron, the upper edge of the cabin, and the rower’s eye lie on the same straight line. Also, the iron lies on the same vertical of the prow. Forcolas have two notches. (Franco 1610)

Credits: (e) Internet Culturale © Marciana National Library, Venice, Italy. CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

103The iron used in this period is documented by some paintings, e.g. Leandro Bassano “The boarding of the Doge from the Riva degli Schiavoni” (Fig. 29a), dating after 1595, Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid; Girolamo Forabosco, “Miraculous rescue from a shipwreck” (Fig. 29b) dating 1646, in the Church of S. Maria Assunta in Malamocco; Joseph Heintz the Young, i.e. “The Procession of the Redeemer” (Fig. 29c) and “Boats in Murano”29 dating 1648, both kept at the Museum Correr, Venice.

Fig. 29 (a) – Detail of irons (16th – 17th centuries)

Fig. 29 (a) – Detail of irons (16th – 17th centuries)
  • 30 https://www.museodelprado.es/en/the-collection/art-work/embarkation-of-the-doge-of-venice/61a80172- (...)

Detail of iron decorations at the turn between the 16th and 17th century. Bassano “The boarding of the Doge of Venice” 30

Credits: Retouched to highlight the gondolas poorly visible. Original: oil on canvas 200 x 597 cm, dating after 1595, No., P000044 © Photographic Archive, Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid

Fig. 29 (b)

Fig. 29 (b)

Detail of an iron decoration from Forabosco “Miraculous rescue from a shipwreck” 31(1646). Oil on canvas, 520 × 350 cm

Credits: Wikimedia Commons, CC0 License

Fig.29 (c)

Fig.29 (c)

Detail of iron decorations at the mid 17th century. Heintz the Young, “The Procession of the Redeemer” 32. (Retouched to highlight the gondolas poorly visible.

Credits: Wikipedia Commons CC-BY-SA-4.0, Original at the Museum Correr, Venice

104Some ancient irons, one for bow and some curls for stern, are preserved at the Correr Museum. Surprisingly, the bow iron (Cl. XIII n. 0108) is dated 15th century. On the ground of the above documents of the 15th and first half of the 16th century (e.g. Breydenbach & Reüwich, Carpaccio, Bellini, Mansueti, de’Barbari and Bordone), the 15th century attribution seems to be too early.

105By calculating the proportions between the rower and the normal gondolas, its average length was around 5.5±0.5 m (i.e. 16 Venice feet); the width remained linked to two persons on the seating, i.e. 140±14 cm; the depth around 60±10 cm.

4.4. The evolution of the gondola at the end of the 17th century

106Near the end of the 17th century, the Dutch cartographer, maritime writer, and leading expert on shipbuilding Nicolaes Witsen published an accurate treatise on Naval Architecture (Witsen, 1690). The gondola (Fig. 30) is shown in vertical and horizontal cross sections and is quoted: length 35 Amsterdam feet (i.e. 9.9 m; 1 Amsterdam foot = 28.31 cm); width 5.5 Amsterdam feet (155 cm) and 2 Amsterdam feet (56.6 cm). It may be possible that this impressive treatise had required a long time to be written and illustrated, and that the correct dating of the gondola drawing might be a few years earlier.

107The gondola has only one board that serves as a seat for two people. The gunwale has five slits to insert forcolas in different positions or other uses, and four holes to insert the U-shaped elements that make up the frame of the felze cabin. Their (cut) basement is visible also in the vertical cross section.

Fig. 30 – Gondola transition type (1690)

Fig. 30 – Gondola transition type (1690)

Gondola, detailed technical drawings at the end of the 17th century

Credit: Witsen, 1690

108The poet Torquato Tasso (1693) published a book of songs with this basic model (Fig. 31a) on page cover. The English gentleman Maximilian Misson (1695) reported a gondola with windows and stern curl decorated (Fig. 31b), probably more convenient to his rank. Edward Wright (1730) who travelled in the years 1720-1722, reported a further example of the basic model (Fig. 31c). This prototype was soon substituted with a less arched model, but some dated gondolas might have survived for a certain time, as we can deduce from the overlapping of publications with images of gondola with different styles. As we have already seen, and as we will see later, the inconsistencies between dating and gondola type derive above all from drawings made by foreign authors or publications printed abroad, which were inspired by dated models, or used old engravings. This shows the importance of relying on local sources.

Fig. 31 – Gondolas transition type (1690-1730)

Fig. 31 – Gondolas transition type (1690-1730)

Gondolas of the transition type at the turn between the 17th and 18th centuries

Credits: (a): Tasso, 1693; (b): Misson, 1695; (c): Wright, 1730

109In his etchings, Luca Carlevarijs documented an evolution of the gondola, where the iron on the bow and the curl on the stern had reached the final shape, but the cabin had the ceiling narrower than the base, and wavy walls (Fig. 32a).

110The engraving by Vincenzo Coronelli (Fig. 32b) shows a well-proportioned shape, including front and stern, the decorative iron, and a better structured cabin, that has dismissed the simple U-frame and the reed framing, and has adopted side windows with curtains. This new, better structured generation will remain almost unchanged over the next centuries.

Fig. 32 (a) – Prototype of baroque gondola with wavy-wall cabin (1703-1709)

Fig. 32 (a) – Prototype of baroque gondola with wavy-wall cabin (1703-1709)

Gondola transition type with wavy wall cabin. Carlevarijs 1703

Credits: Mark J. Millard Architectural Collection, David K.E. Bruce Fund, Archival Resources of the National Gallery of Art, Washington

Fig. 32 (b)

Fig. 32 (b)

Some gondolas transition type, with wavy walls and a boat for the transport of small goods, early 1700s (Coronelli, 1708-1709)

Credits : Internet Culturale © Marciana National Library, Venice, Italy. CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

111A few years later, in the 1710s, Valeriani et al., (1715) show a further step of the transition model sketched by Carlevarijs and Coronelli. The cabin had a further evolution, i.e., it is well-structured, but with rigid shape and flat sides, i.e., vertical walls without the enlargement in the lower part (Fig.33 a,b,c).

Fig. 33 (a, b, c) – Prototype of baroque gondola with rigid-wall cabin (1715)

Fig. 33 (a, b, c) – Prototype of baroque gondola with rigid-wall cabin (1715)

Gondolas in the 1710s, with one or two rowers, a well defined iron and elegant cabin with vertical walls (Valeriani et al., 1715)

Credits : Internet Culturale © Marciana National Library, Venice, Italy. CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

112From this moment on, the gondola was accurately shown in paintings by several Venetian painters (Fig. 34 a, b, c, d), of which Giovanni Antonio Canal, nicknamed Canaletto is the most famous of them.

Fig. 34 (a, b, c, d) – The elegant baroque gondola, 18th century

Fig. 34 (a, b, c, d) – The elegant baroque gondola, 18th century

Gondola, by Canaletto. Details of: (a) The Grand Canal from the Rialto Bridge towards Ca’ Foscari (1725). (b) The Grand Canal from the Rialto Bridge (1725ca). (c) The Entrance to the Grand Canal (1730). (d) The Grand Canal from Palazzo Flangini to San Marcuola (1738).

Credits: (a) © Gallerie Nazionali di Arte Antica, Roma (MiC) - Bibliotheca Hertziana, Istituto Max Planck per la storia dell'arte/Enrico Fontolan; (b) © Cognacq-Jay Museum, Paris Musées (license CCØ); (c) © The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston - Google Art Project; (d) The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles. Getty’s Open Content Program © J. Paul Getty Trust

113All the gondolas in the paintings by Canaletto, Marieschi (Fig. 35ab), Francesco Guardi (Fig. 35c), Giovan Domenico Tiepolo (Fig. 35d) or other painters, are identical between them and represent the typical baroque gondola.

Fig. 35 (a, b, c, d)Baroque gondolas, 18th century

Fig. 35 (a, b, c, d) – Baroque gondolas, 18th century

Gondolas. (a) Detail of “The Grand Canal in front of the Salute” (Marieschi, ca. 1738-40). (b) Detail of “The basin of San Marco” (Marieschi, undated); (c) Detail of “The Grey Lagoon” (Gondolas on the Lagoon) (Guardi 1765); (d) Detail of “The Departure of the Gondola” (Tiepolo, 1760s).

Credits: (a) Museo Nacional Thyssen Bornemisza, Madrid; (b) Gallica, Bibliothèque Nationale de France; (c) Google Art Project, Museo Poldi Pezzoli, Milano; (d) Bequest of Mrs. Charles Wrightsman, 2019, Metropolitan Museum, New York

114After the beginning of the 18th century, the gondola kept a well-defined shape and decorations. The gondola was narrow, black, with the characteristic iron on bow. The size was well defined, i.e. length 24 Venice feet (8.5 m) and beam width 5 Venice feet (175 cm) (Carli Rubbi, 1709; Casoni, 1847). The cabin was better structured, caponera type, made of wood and black wool, always removable, with side windows and curtains. The nobles and the wealthy preferred to go with cabin and two rowers in livery to show their rank, but only one rower was sufficient.

4.5. The final gondola of the 19th and 20th century

115After the invasion of Napoleon, the fall of the Most Serene Republic on 12 May 1797, and the subsequent cession to Austria, Venice ceased to be the capital of a powerful, millenary republic, and became a common city subject to a foreign empire. This was the end of the Venetian nobility, the rich trade, and the pomp that is seen in the dresses of the gentlemen and the ladies in the painting by Canaletto, Marieschi, Guardi and Tiepolo.

116Among the many social consequences, the gondola lost its role for high rank exhibitions, and increased the popular aim of public and tourist transport, like a coach or a taxy. This implied that the servile use of two rowers-servants was not necessary, except in the case of having to travel quickly, or to make a continuous ferry service. Therefore, the normal gondola had one rower, and this required a small increase in length to gain stability. The length was increased to 30‑32 Venice feet, later standardized 11 m, and beam width remained 140‑160 cm (Fig. 36) (American Encyclopedia, 1808; Stratico, 1813; Cadell, 1820, Quadri, 1830). This was the typical size, precisely documented since the beginning of the century.

Fig. 36The long gondola of the 19th century

Fig. 36 – The long gondola of the 19th century

Gondola of the 19th century, with dimensional scale (Quadri, 1830)

117With only one rower, the load is not evenly distributed, and the gondola tended to lean on the propeller side and to deflect to left. To reduce this drawback, the boat was extended in length, without changing width, i.e. the longer hull conferred more stability in direction. This helped, but the solution was improved giving an asymmetric size, i.e. the left side is longer and wider than the right side (Fig. 37a). This asymmetry, combined with the weight (i.e. 12-15 kg) of the modern iron in front, counterbalances the load of the rower on the stern. The gondola is balanced when is loaded, but appears unbalanced and tilt when is empty (Fig. 37b). This technique was developed in the 20th century, and the shape of each gondola is exactly dimensioned for the load of its owner-rower.

Fig. 37 (a, b)The skewed modern gondola (20th century)

Fig. 37 (a, b) – The skewed modern gondola (20th century)

(a): Horizontal cross section of a gondola, showing the flat bottom (green) and the curved hull (black). The right side is different than the left side. (b): A modern gondola with skewed shape and tilted rest position.

Credits: (a): the author, (b): Pexels, photo: Mark Neal

118An intriguing image (Fig. 38), dating 1900, shows a gondola while was passing on the side of a vaporetto, the steamboat of Venice, that one century ago had a steam engine fuelled by wood. The gondolier is pointing at the long plume of white smoke emitted by the water bus. This drawing outlines the ecological role that the gondola had in public transports, and now in the green tourism.

Fig. 38 – Contrast between oar and motor traffic (1900)

Fig. 38 – Contrast between oar and motor traffic (1900)

A gondola while is passing near a steamboat vaporetto that is emitting a long plume of white smoke from the chimney (Bacon, 1900)

119Recently, Gillette (1988) gave the typical dimensions of modern gondolas, i.e. 10.9 m long, 142 cm wide, 65 cm deep.

120Today, the oldest gondola in Venice, built in 1947 (Munerotto, 2009), is named Laura and is exhibited at Ca’ Rezzonico Museum (https://www.savevenice.org/​project/​laura-gondola).

5. Non-Venetian, re-used sources

121For military secrecy, most of the 16th century was poorly documented, especially the first half: the representations were scarce and with very small sketched drawings. Therefore, any kind of source is watched with great interest, and considered a precious witness. However, non-local sources may report additional documentation, but may also create some misinformation. The problem is that the authors, living far from Venice, collected good basic documentation, but not up-to-date, or their books or engravings did require time to be produced with the risk of being dated in the case the situation in Venice had evolved. This explains why dating based on accurate foreign sources may slightly differ from dating deduced from local sources.

122An example of late images for reuse is given by Matthäus Seutter the Elder (1730), who engraved a bird-eye map of Venice inspired to de’ Barbari, that included two views of San Marco, one of them with some gondolas (Fig. 39a). Surprisingly, two of them have the front metal decoration with five rods on bow and a curl on stern, while one has the rod decoration at both ends, like in Franco (1610). The first objection is that the gondolas in Seutter are very dated in comparison with the elegant contemporary models painted by Canaletto. Seutter had apparently remained with the type of the previous century, and this may be due to the source he used for the gondola. In fact, we have found the same engraving in a book published by the Heirs of the printer Matthäus Merian the Elder (1688) in Frankfurt (Fig. 39b), that was reprinted from a book of Martin Zeiller (1640) also published and engraved by Matthäus Merian the Elder in Frankfurt. In conclusion, the engraving by Seutter reports images drawn one century before and this explains the inconsistency of style. Seutter reused the Zeiller-Merian engraving, but tried to update the gondola decorations.

Fig. 39 (a, b) Example of dated images

Fig. 39 (a, b) – Example of dated images

(a) Detail of the map of Venice by Seutter (1730). The gondola on the left is the novel type with iron rods on prow and curl on stern, while the other has the same metal decoration with rods on both ends; (b) The same view from Zeiller (1640) or the Heirs of Merian (1688) edition

Credits: Gallica.bnf.fr / BNF)

123In the first half of the 18th century, Pierre Alexandre Aveline engraved another eye-bird map of Venice, with the fleet of Venice celebrating the feast of the Republic in the Ascension Day. This map is identical to another engraving of Venice included in the book of the Heirs of Merian (1688) and in the previous edition from Zeiller (1640) printed by Merian. Aveline added in large size, on the bottom, some gondolas (Fig. 40a) with symmetrical prow and stern. Both ends are decorated with an unrealistic curl. In the right hand gondola, the rowers have their oars in opposite directions. These gondolas are very dated, and very dissimilar from the elegant baroque gondolas painted by his contemporary Canaletto. The rest of the engraving is identical to the engraving by Merian (1635ca), the figure enclosed in the Zeiller (1640) book, as well as the Heirs of Merian (1688) edition. The detail reported in Fig. 40b shows a Bucintoro, the ship of the Doge, surrounded by many other boats including several gondolas. The gondolas have symmetrical prow and stern, i.e., the style as in Forlani (1566), Zanoi (1574), Vecellio (1590), Bassano (1595), Franco (1610), Forabosco 1646 and Heintz (1648). However, the cabins are unrealistic, because they are too tall and hide completely the view of the gondolier. This suggests that the drawing has been made without direct knowledge of the gondola.

Fig. 40 (a, b) – Gondolas with unrealistically tall cabins, which hide the view

Fig. 40 (a, b) – Gondolas with unrealistically tall cabins, which hide the view

(a): Detail of symmetrical gondolas and tall cabin in an engraving by Aveline (second half 18th century); (b): Detail of the engraving by Matthäus Merian the Elder (1635 ca)

Credit: (a): Harvard Library – Curiosity Collection – Scanned Maps, published in Zeiller (1640), the Heirs of Merian (1688) edition, as well as in Aveline

124The conclusion is that the original source, i.e., Zeiller and Merian the Elder, was excellent, had success, and was reprinted sometimes with minor changes. The same problem has been already discussed with Noe Bianco (1518) and the late reprints of his book that continued till 1791. These replicas are misleading because their figures show gondolas different from those in use ad the printing date.

125An interesting series of wood-cut prints, sized 38.5 x 27 cm each, were printed in Nurnberg, probably in the central or second half of the 16th century, by Jost Amman (Fig. 41). The engravings are attractive not only from an artistic point of view, but because they report a lot of technical details, including the felze cabin, how it was covered with a mat, and the horizontal rods fixed with a rope to the U-frame. The last panel shows a lady who is mounting in a gondola, supported by a hand holding her arm. The woman is walking on a plank that joins the quay with the boat gunwale.

Fig. 41 – Gondolas with fancy curl

Fig. 41 – Gondolas with fancy curl

Gondolas in the engravings by Amman (second half of the 16th century)

Credits: Paris Musées, Petit Palais, Musée des Beaux-Arts de la Ville de Paris license CCØ

126The problem is that Amman certainly looked for good documentation, but the information remained incomplete. Amman was born in Zurich and was active in Basel and then Nurnberg. He never visited Venice, as it can be deduced from inconsistent architectonic details of the Basilica of San Marco and other buildings, or the waves that ripple the surface of the water in the port, which is smooth like a mirror. He represented gondolas with unrealistic spiral curls at bow and stern, instead of rostrums. Likely, Amman made reference to, and tried to interpret, the concise sketches by Matthäus Merian the Elder (1635 ca), Paolo Forlani (1566) or Domenico Zanoni nicknamed Zanoi (1574), where the military secrecy of the rostrums was protected with a decoration similar to a curl.

6. Gondola for celebrations

6.1. Marriages

127The edicts of the Provveditori alle Pompe reveal that showy gondolas were frequently used either for private or public ceremonies, e.g., marriages. Marriages were made a particular day of the year in the Ducal Palace, with a series of public ceremonies that were repeated at fixed intervals of time. A fundamental part of these ceremonies was that the brides were transported by gondola to the nearby islands to find relatives and friends and make known the union not only of who got married, but also of the two families of origin that from now on would be united even in business and power. In practice, a celebration for dissemination of information, with profound social and political significance. This fact is well documented by Vecellio (1590) and especially Franco (1610) in his book with drawings concerning Venice, Venetians, and their life. Gondolas are represented in a lot of such drawings, that confirm that the gondola was the most popular boat navigating in Venice and its Lagoon.

128The two drawings of the wedding in Franco (Fig. 42 a,b) have the upper part in common (i.e., part (b) is derived from (a)), but differ for the foreground image. The comparison between the two foregrounds helps to understand how the U-shaped cabin, and the seats, could be covered with magnificent tapestry, or normal awning, depending on the circumstances or costs. The same boat could be used for everyday business, or for special events, simply changing some optional items. For instance, the bride (b) has a sumptuous dress with showy embroideries, probably in gold thread, matched with the brocade tapestry that covers the cabin. These images are famous because they have been restyled as watercolour by Giovanni Grevenbroch (18th century) kept at the Museo Correr, Venice.

Fig. 42 (a, b) – Gondolas with brides (1610)

Fig. 42 (a, b) – Gondolas with brides (1610)

The caption in (a) is: “In this way brides go by gondola, accompanied by many gondolas, to invite their relatives who live in monasteries”. (b) The same, but the caption is shortened, adapted with mistakes (Franco, 1610)

Credits: Internet Culturale © Marciana National Library, Venice. CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

6.2 Celebrations for King Henry III

129An important historical event was when Henry III Valois, King of Poland and France, came to Venice and stayed for 10 days in June 1574. On this occasion, the Dukes of Savoy, Ferrara, Mantua, and Nevers, and other authorities, reached Venice to participate to the celebrations. Several contemporary witnesses wrote books to describe this happening. Two short excerpts concerning this topic are reported:

“70 noble senators, in crimson ducal robes, had gone to welcome Her Majesty. Each had a garnished gondola, some with a gold blanket, some in velvet, some in satin, some in crimson heavy silk taffeta, with various embroideries and gold and silver works, with four servants for each dressed in livery.” (Sansovino1581)

“Once arrived in Marghera [i.e., locality on the Lagoon border], he [i.e., the King] had the wonderful view of a new world, that is Venice with the small and delightful islands that surround it. He discovered that stretch of sea that separates the City from the mainland, that was full of small boats [i.e., gondolas] especially conceived for the shallow waters. But even if small, they were spectacular and magnificent due to the generosity of the hearts of the Venetians who, as a sign of joy, and as a testimony of honour, furnished their boats with various kinds of tapestries. They had gone to meet Her Majesty and accompany him to Murano [i.e., a small island of Venice]. There were 60 senators, with the gondolas shining inside and out with very fine silk curtains and tapestries. The gondolas were carried on the pleasant waves of the sea by four mighty servants dressed in livery, who were waiting for Her Majesty in Marghera. Golden brocades and the finest carpets were used to make this service most beautiful. Once the king got out of the superb carriage, and the ceremonial actions were completed, he entered the gondola destined for His Majesty, all lined with gold. He was surrounded by an infinite multitude of gondolas, and with great pleasure reached Murano, accompanied by many blasts of harquebuses and cannons sited in Marghera and the island of S. Secondo. The blasts were so many and strong that almost made people tremble.” (Manzini1574)

130The venue of King Henry III was also visually represented by the engraver Domenico Zanoni (Zanoi) (Fig. 43a), with a triumph arch built for this happening, and the Venice fleet transporting and accompanying the King. Cannon salvos on the coastline and two small fleets of normal gondolas near the coast are visible to the left and to the right of the triumph arch. The fleet with the King and the Doge are in the central part of the engraving.

Fig. 43 (a, b) Celebrations for King Henry III (1574)

Fig. 43 (a, b) – Celebrations for King Henry III (1574)

(a): Celebrations for the arrival of King Henry III. Top: the engraving by Zanoi (1574) showing the triumph arch, cannon salvos, and the Venice fleet. (b) Detail of the central part showing the Bucintoro ship with the King, the admiral Galley and a lot of gondolas. For the explanatory writings see the text.

Credits : Zanoi, 1574, Manuscript 104 cc 170v 171r, © Biblioteca Universitaria, Padua

131The detail (Fig. 43 b) reports the central part of the engraving, with the Bucintoro ship for the King and the Doge (legend: Il Bucintoro con il s.mo Re e la Ill.ma Signoria) and the Galley (Galera) of the fleet commander Soranzo (legend: Galera del Clar.mo Gen. Soranzo) with blanking cannons on prow. Between the two main ships two gilded gondolas for Her Majesty (legend: due gondole per sua M. fornite d’oro). On both sides, two wings of gondolas with crimson tapestry and decorations for the King’s court (legend: gondole fornite di cremisino). Externally to them, there are wings of boats of the workers, i.e., artisans of all arts and crafts, grouped by trades. It must be specified that Venice was a democratic republic grounded on the active people that had their trade representatives in the Senate and an active part in assisting and controlling the public government. The Bucintoro was followed by a wing of military Galleys with rostrum, and a further wing of craftsmen (not included in this detail).

6.3. Luxury gondolas for celebrations and high rank authorities

132The feast of the Most Serene Republic of Venice was the Ascension Day in which the Doge made the wedding with the sea. Another important feast was of the Redeemer. All the Senate, the Ambassadors, the nobles, the Union Trades and all the people took part in the ceremony. The highest social positions had the gondola, with fancy decorations, and the colours of the home. The stern curl was embellished with many flowers and other decorative elements (Fig. 44 a, b, c). The cabin was supported by four large figures, representing Valour, Wealth, Wisdom, and Fortune. The top was covered with a rich gold brocade, gold leaves and other decorations.

133The ceremonial ranking required that the Doge had the most gilded and showiest gondola (Fig. 44 a) as shown by Canaletto in 1738 during the pier on Ascension Day. As four gilded gondolas are in front to a gilded Bucintoro boat, they are hardly distinguishable in the original painting; therefore, the front gondola has been highlighted by fading the colours around it.

Fig. 44 (a) – Gilded gondolas near a Bucintoro and other boats

Fig. 44 (a) – Gilded gondolas near a Bucintoro and other boats

Below: The same but the gilded gondola in front has been put into evidence (Canaletto, around 1738, Detail of the return of the Bucintoro to the pier on Ascension Day.

Credits: Wikipedia, © The Earl of Leicester and Trustees of the Holkham Estate Wells-Next-The-Sea, UK; CC BY-SA 4.0

Fig. 44 (b, c) – Gilded gondolas for celebrations

Fig. 44 (b, c) – Gilded gondolas for celebrations

(b): Gilded and normal gondolas in “the Procession of gondolas at San Marco Basin”, Antonio Jolie, 1742. (c): A gilded-like gondola with red cabin for noblemen or local authorities (Vanvitelli, 1697; detail of View of Venice from the Island of San Giorgio33)

Credits: (b): The National Gallery of Art, Washington DC, Gift Barbara Hutton). (c): Oil on canvas, 98 cm x 174 cm, No. P000475, © Photographic Archive, Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid

134The use for representation aims generated a series of gondola models, where not only the Doge and the Ambassadors, but each noble or rich family had his own gondola, with his own arms and colours, particular decorations and slightly different size. Who was not a very important person, had to be satisfied with a gondola painted to look gilded, but with standard decorations, on the cabin and the curl, e.g. the yellow gondola with red cabin shown by Gaspar Van Wittel nicknamed Vanvitelli (Fig. 44c). Of course, the higher the social rank, the more finely decorated the gondola, with vivid colours and gilded statues; the gondola of an Ambassador Prince (Fig. 44d) was showier that an Ambassador Count (Fig. 44e).

Fig. 44 (d, e)Gilded gondolas for high-ranking dignitaries (1697-1715)

Fig. 44 (d, e) – Gilded gondolas for high-ranking dignitaries (1697-1715)

(d) Finely decorated gondola of the Ambassador Prince Ercolani with many gilded decorations and statues (Coronelli 1697); (e) Decorated gondola of the Ambassador Count Colloredo. This drawing is dated 1715 and the gondola has the front iron (Valeriani et al., 1715)

Credits: (d): Gallica, Bibliothèque nationale de France ; (e): Internet Culturale © Marciana National Library, Venice, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

135Around 1660s, some gilded gondolas were built and sent to Louis XIV, the Sun King, to float on the calm waters of the Grand Trianon and the Grand Canal in the Gardens of Versailles (Cicogna, 1847; Cowen, 2003). Every European royal palace had a pond with a kitsch gondola with bright colours, e.g. Fig. 44f.

Fig. 44 (f) – A gondola for royal amusements (1761)

Fig. 44 (f) – A gondola for royal amusements (1761)

A multi-coloured gondola at the Royal Palace, Munich. Bellotto, 1761

Credits: Samuel H. Kress Foundation, New York, Archival Resources of the National Gallery of Art, Washington

136However, the Doge and the members of the Senate had to pay too much to keep their own gondolas at top luxury level, so that they decided to abolish distinctions and everybody had to return to the simple gondola. Starting from 1562, the Senate forbade cabins gilded, painted or carved, and recommended a uniform style, all with the natural black colour of the pitch used to waterproof the hull. Only the Doge, noblemen and ambassadors could have gondolas with bigger size, decorations, gilded parts, and the colour of the family arms. The cabin had side windows to see and to be seen, or to keep closed. This basic directive was not fully respected. This was obvious in 1574, with sumptuous gondolas for the celebration of King Henry III. Therefore, sumptuary decrees were repeated several times to return to the standard model, without differences in size, decorations and colour, without rank distinctions or privileges. Nonetheless, it has been necessary to reach the 19th century to see all gondolas with the same appearance, all black pitch. From then on, noblemen returned to use a simple black gondola, that they considered like our utilitarian car.

137In 1875, when Franz Joseph Emperor of Austria went to Venice to meet Victor Emmanuel II King of Italy, he was welcomed with an ordinary gondola, adorned with a simple canopy, with a crown on top, and rich tapestries (Fig. 45a) (Lyell, 1891). A procession constituted of gondolas and some historical boats accompanied the Emperor along the Grand Canal (Fig. 45b).

Fig. 45 (a, b) – Gondolas welcoming the Emperor Franz Joseph (1875)

Fig. 45 (a, b) – Gondolas welcoming the Emperor Franz Joseph (1875)

(a) The decorated gondola at the visit of Franz Joseph Emperor of Austria to Victor Emmanuel II King of Italy in 1875 (Lyell, 1891). (b) Procession of gondolas on the Grand Canal welcoming the Emperor (Illustrated London News, 1875)

7. Classification of the various gondola types

138The gondola had a marked evolution of the iron (Fig. 46). The early types, i.e., the cymbula (type 0) and the arched type A of the 15th century had no irons, neither on bow nor on stern. In the 16th century, bow and stern were provided of two symmetrical rostrums for military purposes (type B). The rostrum was composed of a basic iron fixed to the bow (or the stern), with a blade on top and beaks below. The blade on the top resembled the iron of an axe, perhaps for striking and breaking the hull of larger boats. The lower part of the rostrum had some protruding beaks in the fore part and only one back. The use of the back beak is not clear, probably to form a T useful to tie the boat when moored or dragged. The number of the frontal beaks changes from drawing to drawing, or from boat to boat in the same drawing, or even in the same boat, where number of bow beaks and stern beaks may be the same or different. This variability suggests that the beaks did not have a symbolic meaning (i.e., they did not represent the number of islands or quartiers as the 6 fingers of the iron have today), but had a purely practical purpose, i.e., they constituted the impact wedges of the rostrum, to damage the small boats of their enemies.

Fig. 46

Fig. 46

Stern and bow terminals of the various gondola types. 0, A, without iron decorations; B with military rostrums; B/C transition model; C,D,E bow iron and stern curl of the various gondola types since the 18th century

139Near the turn between the 17th and the 18th century, we assist to another, but gradual transformation (type B/C). The gondola changed appearance, with bow and stern different between them. The iron decoration was applied to the bow and a curl on stern. The iron had a decorative function, with six protruding fingers representing the districts that formed the City.

140After this transformation, the top of the iron was enlarged and reshaped (type C, D, E) and in the 19th century it assumed the final look. The traditional interpretation was to represent a dolphin (and the iron was named ‘dolphin’), or the Doge's hat that stands above all parts. The iron of modern gondolas is certainly decorative, but has the practical scope to counterbalance the load of the rower on the stern, as discussed in section 4.5.

141Concerning the gondola hull, some sources report precise values; in other cases, it has been possible to evaluate the dimensions from the pictorial representations. Table 1 gives an overview, reporting the length, width and depth from literature values or the estimation based from the pictorial sources in proportion with the height of the gondolier. As already commented, the boats were accurately presented, but the reference man was less, which might determine an uncertainty band around ±10%.

Table 1

Reference

Year

Type

Cabin

Length

(m)

Width (cm)

Depth

(cm)

Mosaics

12th -14th century

0

NO

2±0.5?

120±40?

60±20?

Breydenbach*

1486

A

U-felze

5.5±0.5

140±14

60±6

Carpaccio*

1490-96

A

U-felze

6±0.6

140±14

60±6

Theodoro de Nicolò °

1550

B1

No

9.73

174

70

Vecellio *

1590

B2

U-felze

5.5±0.6

140±14

60±6

Bassano*

>1595

B2

U-felze

5.5±0.6

Franco*

1610

B2

U-felze

5.5±0.6

140±14

60±6

Zeiller*

1640

B2

U-felze

5±0.5

Heintz*

1648

B2

U-felze

6±1

140±14

60±6

Witsen°

1690

B/C

Unspecified

10

155

57

Carli Rubbi°

1709

C

Caponera

8.5

175

60

Canaletto*

1720-40

C

Caponera

8±1

150±15

60±6

Marieschi*

1740

C

Caponera

8±0.8

150±15

60±6

Guardi*

1765

C

Caponera

8±1

70±10

Tiepolo*

1765

C

Caponera

7.5±0.8

60±6

American Enyclopedia °

1808

D

Caponera

11

140-160

-

Stratico°

1813

D

Caponera

11

140-160

-

Cadell °

1820

D

Caponera

11

140-160

-

Quadri°

1830

D

Caponera

11

140-160

-

Casoni°

1847

D

Caponera

8.5

175

60

Gillette°

1988

E

rarely used

10.9

142

65

Overview of the cabin type and physical dimensions of the gondola (length, width and depth) over the centuries. Reference (*): value estimated from a pictorial representation; (°) value declared by the source. B1 represents the big military type; B2 the small military type

142So far, a number of different types of gondola have been presented, each of them characterized by a distinctive appearance and/or size. A complete overview of the different types considered in this paper is reported in Table 2.

Table 2

Table 2

Overview of the different gondola types considered in this paper

Type 0, 12th – 14th century, Roman cymbula. The boat was small (around 2 m in length) and basic, without cabin. Typical example: Byzantine mosaics.
Type A, 15th century, arched gondola, like a Roman cymbula. The gondola was a small boat shaped like the Crescent Moon, around 5-6 m in length, without decorations. The felze cabin was essential, with U-frame, swamp reeds and matting. It was possible to enter walking on bow. Typical example: Breydenbach & Reüwich (1486) and Carpaccio painting (1496).
Type B1, first half of the 16th century, like a Viking corsair vessel for military commandos. It was transformed for military purposes for the river raids against Ferrara and the Cambrai League. The boat was bigger, around 10 m, to host more rowers, soldiers and the plunder of raids. It had both ends vertically raised like a swan neck, with prow and stern almost symmetrical between them, or stern a bit higher. Prow and stern had S-shaped metal reinforcements with top similar to the blade of an axe, and neck with protruding metal rods, like a rostrum. It was used without cabin. Typical example: Theodoro de Nicolò (1550 ca)
Type B2, 16th and 17th century. The same Viking corsair type but with reduced size, for civilian use, i.e. water cart for transport of a few passengers. The cabin remained felze: essential, U-shaped, with matting. A back awning (batticoppa) was added, when useful. Passengers entered from the side. Typical example: Franco (1610).
Type C, 18th century, baroque elegant, internationally renamed (shorter). The gondola changed shape, becoming very similar to nowadays. Its length was around 8-9 m. The metal prow decoration had an evolution, i.e., the top became wider and more protruding, and the rods became flat forming a unique structure with the top, like today. The cabin (caponera) was structured, made of wood with wool and had windows. On stern, the decoration was a curl. Typical example: Canaletto paintings.
Type D, 19th century, elegant, internationally renamed (longer). The shape remained unchanged but a bit longer, i.e., 11 m, twice the length of type A. The wooden cabin had windows and door.
Type E, 20th century, tourist attraction. The general shape is the same but, in order to balance the load of the rower, the two sides are slightly asymmetrical in combination with the weight of the front iron. Cabins are rarely used.

143In all types, at least from A to E, the width remained almost unchanged, being fixed by the possibility of hosting two persons on the seats, but especially to ensure a sufficient stability against lateral swings. Again, the bottom remained flat and the depth remained almost unchanged from A to E, being conditioned by the need to navigate in very shallow waters.

144The flat bottom cannot damp oscillations generated by internal motions of passengers or lateral forces like waves or fresh wind. Under this aspect, the gondola is an unstable boat. It sways, but it is unlikely that a gondola could overturn. However, this happened in 2019, 2017, 2016, 2013, when newspapers reported of serious accidents after collision with a waterbus. This is a rare event compared with the traffic accidents in other cities.

8. Draught and floating

145The knowledge of the draught depth, i.e., the part of the boat below the water level, is the technical characteristic that has stimulated this research. A traveller guide printed in 1900 wrote: “A finely outlined, handsomely ornamented flat-bottomed boat is the gondola. It rests lightly upon the water and draws so little water that it can pass through the shallowest canals at low tide. When the Adriatic Sea overflows the grand square of San Marco, as it does sometimes during the spring tides, the gondola slides up to the cafes and takes on board those who object to wading home along the quays” (Bacon 1900). Such overflows do not happen so frequently as the traveller suggests, but they happen. The aim is to know the water depth necessary for gondolas to reach San Marco Square navigating over the pavement.

146Over the centuries, the length of the gondola was increased, but its width remained almost unchanged as well as its hull depth. The hull depth is 65 cm, and the part submerged, i.e., the draught, is 3/5 of it (i.e., 39 cm) (Gillette 1988). Under stationary conditions (i.e., docked boat), at maximum load, with passengers and rower, the draught may reach 1.5 Venice feet (52 cm). Under dynamic conditions, the rowing strokes, wind waves, or movements of passengers, do generate some pitch and roll, and these oscillations cannot be damped by the flat bottom. The water depth for a gondola to navigate with its typical swaying requires some additional 10 cm.

147In the ancient chronicles, we find at the most extreme flooding of the City, locally named ‘acqua alta’ (litterally deep water), the Venetians could reach San Marco Square by gondola (Enzi and Camuffo 1995; Camuffo 2023). This happened in 1283, 1600, 1686, 1742, 1746, 1750, 1762, 1770, 1782, 1786, 1821, 1822, 1848, 1864, 1867, 1966 and 2019. In addition, some paintings by Vicenzo Chilone34 (Fig. 47a) and Federico Moja show this scene but without a precise reference date, most likely inspired to 1821 (Camuffo 2022a). Another similar view is by Felix Ziem (Fig. 47b) and is referred to 1863 (instead of 1864?).

Fig. 47 (a, b) – The acqua alta with gondolas floating in San Marco Square

Fig. 47 (a, b) – The acqua alta with gondolas floating in San Marco Square

(a): Vincenzo Chilone (1825); (b) Felix Ziem (after 1863)

Credits: (a) Wikipedia; (b) Paris Musées, Petit Palais, Musée des Beaux-Arts de la Ville de Paris, license CCØ

148Overall, the hull swaying and the pivoting oar require a water depth 60-70 cm for safe riding in shallow waters. The same can be said for the sandolo. Therefore, when in the Venetian chronicles we find that an exceptional storm surge had flooded the city, and gondolas could float over San Marco square, this means that the flooding depth reached 60-70 cm above the paving.

9. Conclusions

149The combination of different approaches, including history, art and environmental science, has allowed to reconstruct the evolution over time of the technical performances of the gondola, and has clarified some obscure points of its history, i.e., the origins, and the transformation it had during the 16th century.

150For the Venice environment, two basic requirements are necessary: (i) the boats should be designed to navigate in the Lagoon, with its complex morpho-dynamics, canals and rivers; (ii) the rowers should be particularly skilled to manage a particular oar and very expert of some hydrodynamic phenomena to recognize water depths from the distortion of the wave fronts, or the tidal phase after the motion of suspended debris in combination with the small distance between the water level and the green algae belt. The knowledge that the ancient Venetians had of the sea, and how to recognize bottom depth and tidal level without specific instruments is really impressive.

151The gondola has been conceived for the local environment, or as a connection boat for vessels under calm sea conditions. It is a masterpiece of hydrodynamics, and has adopted all the solutions and tricks to give an optimal response, and a flexible use, in a very difficult environment. It is remarkable that these results were not obtained by scientists with the help of theory, simulation models and hydraulic tunnels, but simply through direct observation and the exceptional skills of Venetian craftsmen.

152For its particular structure, the gondola is a light, small boat with flat bottom, conceived for the Lagoon and marshes, characterized by very shallow waters and the absence of waves. Therefore, it can safely navigate in the Lagoon, canals and rivers, but cannot afford the open sea, except under calm conditions, i.e., Beaufort scale 0. In the case of stormy weather, or sudden wind, the gondola must quickly find where to stop and take shelter.

153The boats in Venice had strong similarities with those used in Asia for similar environmental conditions, and fishing with cormorants in Carpaccio is a further strong analogy. The pictorial analysis has confirmed three issues, i.e.: the early boats used in Venice were dictated by the Lagoon environment; Venice continued the Roman-Byzantine tradition; the important business that Venice had with China may have favoured East-West similarities.

154The contemporary representations mentioned in this paper show that, in the period from the 6th to the 12th century, when the gondola was mentioned for the first time, it was a Roman cymbula, similar to a Crescent Moon. The boat represented in the Calling of the Apostles of the Byzantine mosaic of Ravenna, or the mosaic of San Marco with the translation of the relics, or the tablet by Duccio di Boninsegna, show the same shape as the woodcuts by Muffel (ca. 1467), Rolewinck (1479), Breydenbach & Reüwich (1486) and the oil on canvas of several Renaissance painters.

155However, at the beginning of the 16th century, the gondola underwent an unexpected transformation that had remained unexplained until today. It has been found that the gap of information was due to the military secrecy. Starting from 1509, the gondola was transformed for military purposes determined by the war against the Allies of the League of Cambrai, i.e., the need of building a military fleet of small boats for rivers and short stretches of sea to transport commandos for war actions and raids. The need to transport commandos with critical mass of warriors suggested a big gondola, very likely with 8 rowers. The military gondola increased it size, and became like a Viking corsair vessel. Bow and stern were symmetrical, so that the boat could go both forward and backward without needing to turn itself. Both bow and stern were provided of rostrums to impact against enemy boats and damage them. The iron axe on top was for the hull of big ships, the beaks in the lower part of the rostrum for small boats. This big military type was built in the Arsenal in great secrecy. Simultaneously, the private yards continued to produce gondolas with the same corsair shape but smaller, that were used either for civilian transports or for raids made by private citizens.

156Around the middle of the 16th century, when wars ended, the gondola returned to be used for the everyday life in Venice and its Lagoon. The shape was preserved, but prevailed the smaller model for four passengers and one or two rowers.

157In the second half of the 17th century, returned to normal life, the Venetian Senate wanted to return to a new, standard gondola, simple and the same for everyone. This generated another slower renovation that flourished in the 18th century. The bow was differentiated from the stern. The rostrum became a decoration: a big iron on bow, and curl on stern. The big iron had a practical mechanical scope: to compensate the load of only one rower standing on stern in asymmetrical position. The result was the elegant boat that we know today. Since this period the documentation is excellent, represented by painters like Valeriani, Coronelli, Carlevarijs, van Wittel, Canaletto, Bellotto, Marieschi, Guardi, Tiepolo and many others, and became the symbol of the City.

158From the written and pictorial sources, we see that the length increased from the original 2 m of the cymbula, to the 5.5 - 6 m of the intermediate period, to 11 m in use today. The width remained between 140-160 cm, being determined by two factors: to avoid overturning and to host two persons on each seat. The hull depth remained around 60-70 cm, for two requirements: the draught below the waterline should be as short as possible (e.g. 40-50 cm) to avoid impacts against the bottom; the height above the waterline should be as short as possible (e.g. 20-30 cm) to reduce weight. The latter condition, however, is not compatible with waves, that should not exceed 10-15 cm height. This constitutes a strong limitation for marine use or stormy weather.

159This study has concluded that, although the gondola has undergone changes in shape and appearance, its width, hull depth and draught remained almost unchanged. In the years 1283, 1600, 1686, 1742, 1746, 1750, 1762, 1770, 1782, 1786, 1821, 1822, 1848, 1864, 1867, 1966, 2019 in which exceptional storm surges flooded Venice and gondolas could ride on San Marco Square, the depth of the flooding waters is given by the sum of two values: the depth to reach the paving of the Square, and at least 60 cm for the gondola to navigate over streets and squares.

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Munerotto G (2010). La gondola nei secoli: storia di una continua trasformazione tra architettura navale e arte. Vianello, Ponzano Veneto, Treviso

Penzo G (1999). La gondola: storia, progettazione e costruzione della più straordinaria imbarcazione tradizionale di Venezia. Istituzione per la conservazione della gondola e la tutela del gondoliere, Venice

Penzo G (2002). Barche Veneziane. Catalogo illustrato dei piani di costruzione. Venetian Boats. An illustrated catalogue of draughts. Il Leggio, Sottomarina, Venice

Penzo G (2016). La gondola. Il Leggio, Sottomarina, Venice

Pergolis R, Pizzarello U (1981). Le barche di Venezia / The boats of Venice. L’Altra Riva, Venice

Rallo G (1966). Guida alla natura nella laguna di Venezia: Itinerari, storia e informazioni naturalistiche, Muzzio, Venice

Rosen, M. (2008). The Republic at Work: S. Marco’s Reliefs of the Venetian Trades. The Art Bulletin, 90(1), p. 54‑75. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20619588

Tassini G (1988). Curiosità veneziane, revised by L. Moretti, 9th edition. Filippi, Venice

Tigler G (1995). Il portale maggiore di San Marco a Venezia. Aspetti iconografici e stilistici dei rilievi duecenteschi, Istituto Veneto di Scienze lettere ed Arti, Venice

Tosi L, Rizzetto F, Zecchin M, Brancolini G, Baradello L (2009). Morphostratigraphic framework of the Venice Lagoon (Italy) by very shallow water VHRS surveys: Evidence of radical changes triggered by human-induced river diversions. Geophysical Research Letters 36(9) https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GL037136

Vio E. (Ed.) (1990). Basilica Patriarcale in Venezia - San Marco -I Mosaici - La Storia l'Illuminazione. Fabbri Editori, Milano.

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Notes

1 “Proinde naves quas more animalium vestris parietbus illigastis, diligenti cura reficite, ...” Cassiodorus, Epistulas, XII, 24, letter to the Venetian Tribunes, AD 538

2 “Gundulam vero nullam, nisi liberam voluntate vestra nobis facturi estis” (Falier, Pacta II, 29-30).

3 “et ipsi parati et recepta sive gundulis et angaridiis, sicut Domino Duci faciant omnem honorationem, sic fiat Domino Metropolitano Patriarcha Gradensi”. (Chronicle of Altino, Book III)

4 the upper edge of the side of a boat or ship

5 Literally: “Company of Stocking”, that was a club of nobles dedicated to pleasures and amusements, who were distinguished by a colorful stocking.

6 Decree of the Provveditori alle Pompe, dated 8 October 1562.

7 Decree of Sopraprovveditori e Provveditori alle Pompe, dated 9 December 1628.

8 Decree of Sopraprovveditori e Provveditori alle Pompe, dated 18 April 1633.

9 The mosaic is in the Chapel of San Cipriano, San Marco Basilica. The view of the ship towing this small boat is not commonly represented because it is partially hidden by organ pipes (see old picture by Fratelli Alinari at Zeri Foundation, University of Bologna, Catalogue No. 6836, location PI_0028/4/53). This figure has been found in the Library of the National Gallery of Art (library.nga.gov).

10 This image has been obtained from a detail of the small boat in the reliefs of the Venetian Trades, used to represent the boat builders. Third arch intrados of the central gate of the San Marco Basilica, mid 13th century. The marble relief shows four boat builders working on this boat. To make the boat better recognizable and comparable with the mosaic, we have subtracted the boat from the context, removed workers’ arms and tools that covered the view and reconstructed the gaps, and changed orientation to the boat to match it with the mosaic. This illustrative image is 70% original and 30% reconstructed. For a real picture of the boat-builder relief see Tigler (1995); Vio (1990); Rosen (2008).

11 The Muffel’s manuscript is known as codex “Egerton 1900”.

12 https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jacopo_de%27_Barbari_-_View_of_Venice_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg

13 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vittore_Carpaccio_-_Hunting_on_the_Lagoon_(recto),_Letter_Rack_(verso)_-_79.PB.72_-_J._Paul_Getty_Museum.jpg

14 https://www.gallerieaccademia.it/miracolo-della-reliquia-della-croce-al-ponte-di-rialto

15 https://www.gallerieaccademia.it/en/miracle-relic-holy-cross-campo-san-lio

16 http://catalogo.fondazionezeri.unibo.it/scheda/opera/30292/Mansueti%20Giovanni%2C%20Miracolo%20della%20reliquia%20della%20croce%20in%20Campo%20S.%20Lio

17 https://catalogo.beniculturali.it/detail/HistoricOrArtisticProperty/0500401924

18 visible at https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondola#/media/File:Accademia_-_Miracolo_della_reliquia_della_Croce_al_ponte_di_San_Lorenzo_-_Gentile_Bellini_-_cat.568.jpg

19 Known also as Holy League. In English, the locality Cambrai is popularly named Camerick.

20 Agnadello lies on the Po Valley, some 20 km east of Milano.

21 Barbota: a ship on which a leather cover is applied to protect against arquebus and cannon shots.

22 Brigantino: small low-board vessel, with a single deck and three masts, suitable for fast corsair actions (the name means: little brigand).

23 The bissona (litterally: great water snake, for its speed and maneuverability) is a boat similar to the gondola, but bigger, with 8 rowers. Today it has been adorned with sumptuous decorations, and is used only for ceremonies and historical representations, e.g. the Regatta.

24 https://catalogo.beniculturali.it/detail/HistoricOrArtisticProperty/0500402265

25 Note that Venice was an international city, with many (rich) foreign people, that needed assistance, help, or company. Some ladies studied to sing, play a musical instrument, or to make conversations on art, literature, philosophy, or to participate to official dinners, or to stay in the free time with foreign hosts. This was a job without implying (nor excluding) sexual performances.

26 The decrees can be found in the Marciana National Library, Venice.

27 Decree of the Provveditori alle Pompe, dated 11May 1609.

28 We have reported the English translation by Francis Terne in 1699.

29 https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/il-fresco-in-barca-a-murano-heintz-detto-il-giovane/9wFd2vcDl1EhVg

30 https://www.museodelprado.es/en/the-collection/art-work/embarkation-of-the-doge-of-venice/61a80172-5203-4006-83bb-95b940a0edff?searchid=1d51f912-74dd-5155-eb59-bd751232d8de

31 https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Salvataggio_miracoloso_da_un_naufragio_-_Forabosco.jpg

32 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_procession_of_the_Redeemer_by_Joseph_Heintz_the_Younger.jpg

33 https://www.museodelprado.es/en/the-collection/art-work/view-of-venice-from-the-island-of-san-giorgio/e47ffedb-24a9-44dc-b704-d6e4f70b19e0

34 https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chilone-San_Marco_Flooded.jpg

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List of illustrations

Title Fig. 1 – Maps of the Venice Lagoon
Caption (A): Early 16th century (Bordone, 1534); (B): end of the 18th century (Furlanetto, 1780)
Credits Credits: (a) Biblioteca Universitaria, Padova; (b) Gallica gallica.bnf.fr/BnF
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-1.jpg
File image/jpeg, 292k
Title Fig. 2 – Details of the Lagoon environment
Caption (a): Aerial view of Burano island, and marshes around it. (b): Aerial view of old river channelling through the saltmarshes in the north-eastern Lagoon, with haze. (c): Sky reflected on mirroring waters and vegetation from marshes, near Torcello. (d): How waves change with bottom depth. The lower half of the photo corresponds to a deep channel; the part above the pile is marsh. The waves change shape at the passage, and form ripples parallel to the channel (or canal) edge (arrow).
Credits Credits: Photo (a) to (d) Wikipedia, pictures by (a) Frode Inge Helland; (b) Francesco Rossi; (c, d) Godromil)
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-2.jpg
File image/jpeg, 83k
Title Fig. 3 The algae infestation helps to recognize tide level
Credits (a): The level reached by the green algae on buildings corresponds to the front of usual wetting level. (b) In stairs, the top two steps from the high-tide level (HT) to the mean sea level (MSL) are green for better chlorophyll synthesis, while the two steps from the average sea level to the average low-tide level (LT) are dark.
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-3.jpg
File image/jpeg, 87k
Title Fig. 4 – Boats with flat bottom floating on shallow waters in Asia
Caption (a-e) Vietnam; (f) India. Note in (e) the removable cabin-shelter obtained with two U-frames and bamboo fences.
Credits Source : Pexel. Photo: (a-e) Quang Nguyen; (f) Md Towhidul Islam. License CC-BY-SA-3.0
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-4.jpg
File image/jpeg, 150k
Title Fig. 5 (a, b) Forcola and oar
Caption Front and side view of a forcola with a single notch; (b) The lever principle of rowing: The fulcrum O is in water; OF is the distance from the forcola F, i.e., the load arm; OG the distance from the gondolier G, i.e., the lever arm.
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-5.jpg
File image/jpeg, 33k
Caption (a): Early cabin structure, felze type, in use from the 15th to 17th century. It was composed of two U shaped frames, with holes to insert horizontal rods constituted of swamp reeds. A matting or an awning was placed on the top to form the ceiling, or to cover both sides. (b): Weather shelters with half-cylinder shape, used regularly by merchant boats (Valeriani et al., 1715)
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-6.jpg
File image/jpeg, 369k
Title Fig. 6 (c) – Structured cabins, caponera type, in use from the 18th century
Caption It was constituted of a rigid wooden frame with windows and curtains.
Credits Marieschi, Magnificentiores selectioresque Urbis Venetiarum prospectus, Pisani Palace, 1710-43. Gallica.bnf.fr / BNF.
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-7.jpg
File image/jpeg, 79k
Title Fig. 7 (a, b, c) – Cymbula and cimbula-like vessels (6 and 11 centuries)
Caption (a): Cymbula of the 6th century, detail of the calling of Peter and Andrew, Mosaic from the Church of S. Apollinaire Nuovo, Ravenna. (b,c): Byzantine ships illustrated at the turn between the 11th- 12th century (Codex Skylitzes Matritensis)
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-8.jpg
File image/jpeg, 265k
Title Fig. 7 (d) – Venetian cymbula (12th century)
Caption The ship is towing a small boat, like a cymbula, tied with a cable. (Detail of the transportation of Saint Mark's relics9, 12th century.
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-9.jpg
File image/jpeg, 92k
Title Fig. 7 (e)
Caption Detail of the small boat in the “The Calling of the Apostles Peter and Andrew” by Duccio di Boninsegna, dated 1308-1311
Credits Credits: Samuel H. Kress Foundation, New York, Archival Resources of the National Gallery of Art, Washington
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-10.jpg
File image/jpeg, 104k
Title Fig. 8 (a, b) – Venetian boats represented by Muffel (ca. 1467)
Caption (a): Venice, with an unlikely urban landscape and two sailing boats. (b): Pola, with three cymbula-like gondolas
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-11.jpg
File image/jpeg, 130k
Title Fig. 9 (a, b, c) Arched gondolas (Rolenwinck, 1479-1486)
Caption (a): An early gondola image (Rolewinck 1479) with mirrored building background. (b): The second edition of Rolewinck (1480) with the background drawn correctly. (c): The Rolewinck (1480) woodcut used in Foresti (1486) with mirrored building background.
Credits Credits: (a) and (c) from Masséna Essling (1907-14), Gallica.bnf.fr / BNF
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-12.jpg
File image/jpeg, 120k
Title Fig. 10 – Panoramic view of Venice by Breydenbach & Reüwich (1486)
Credits Credit: Gallica.bnf.fr / BNF
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-13.jpg
File image/jpeg, 271k
Title Fig. 11 – Example of related map-landscape (1486-1500)
Caption (a): The prototype: detail of Breydenbach & Reüwich (1486). (b): The map in Schedel (1493). (c) The same in Schedel (1500)
Credits Source: Gallica.bnf.fr / BNF
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-14.jpg
File image/jpeg, 223k
Title Fig. 12 (a, b, c) – Views of San Marco with arched gondolas (1490, 1517, 1564)
Caption (a) : Illustration in Foresti printed Rusconi (1490). (b) : Front cover of Montalboddo (1517); (c): Bianco (1564) printed by Zoppino & Di Polo, Venice
Credits Credits: © Biblioteca Antica Seminario Vescovile, Padua
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-15.jpg
File image/jpeg, 192k
Title Fig.12 (d) – Comparison between Bianco (1518) printed by Zoppino & Di Polo
Caption Note the gondola on the right side has added the iron decoration on the bow and the curl on stern. The writings have spelling changed from old Venetian to contemporary Venetian. and Bianco (1668) printed by Remondino, Bassano
Credits Credits: 1518, Bibliotheca Terrae Sanctae, Jerusalem
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-16.jpg
File image/jpeg, 465k
Title Fig. 13 – Detail of the wooden dock with four gondolas moored, two with and two without cabin (1486)
Caption Prow and stern are quite symmetrical with flat, walkable breasthook. On the front gondola, a passenger is entering, using the breasthook as a walkway.
Credits Breydenbach & Reüwich, 1486
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-17.jpg
File image/jpeg, 233k
Caption (a): Bird-eye Map12; (b): detail with large roundish transport ships named Coccas, two Galee Sotttili and two gondolas, i.e.: (C) with cabin and single rower; (W) without cabin and two rowers
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-18.jpg
File image/jpeg, 118k
Title Fig. 15 (a, b, c) – Boats for bowhunting and cormorants (1490-95)
Caption (a): Early boats for shallow waters in Carpaccio “Hunting in the Lagoon”13 (1490-95, detail). (b): A boat with cormorants for fishing in China. (c): A sandolo, with hull similar to that of gondolas; two gondolas are visible in the background. The rower is standing inside the boat, not on the stern.
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-19.jpg
File image/jpeg, 123k
Title Fig. 16 (a, b) – Arched gondolas with and without cabin, Carpaccio (1496)
Caption Early gondolas with and without cabin, in Carpaccio, “Miracle of the Relic of the Cross at the Rialto Bridge”14 (details, c. 1496). Part (b) continues and expands part (a).
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-20.jpg
File image/jpeg, 93k
Title Fig. 17 (a, b) – Arched gondolas with and without cabin, Mansueti (1494, 1502)
Caption (a): Detail of two gondolas without cabin in Mansueti (1494) “Procession of the Holy Cross”. Note the kit of swamp reeds (highlighted yellow) that constitute the horizontal framing of the cabin. (b) Detail of a gondola in Mansueti (1502) “Miraculous healing of the daughter of Benvegnudo da San Polo”. The forcola has two notches (red)
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-21.jpg
File image/jpeg, 98k
Title Fig. 18 – Two arched gondolas, early 1500s
Caption Two moored gondolas without cabin
Credits Bordone 1527, © Biblioteca Universitaria, Padua
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-22.jpg
File image/jpeg, 120k
Credits Credits: Wikipedia
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-23.jpg
File image/jpeg, 238k
Title Fig. 20 – Military gondolas used for pontoon bridges (1509)
Caption Hypothetical reconstruction of a pontoon bridge made with gondolas tied together at the T of the rostrum, and planks resting on the hull.
Credits Credit: the author
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-24.jpg
File image/jpeg, 37k
Title Fig. 21 Scheme of the wooden hull of the big military gondola built in the Arsenal in the mid 16th century
Caption The part highlighted violet in the center of the drawing is the transverse cross section (width). The scale of the transverse section is reported under the hull. (Theodoro de Nicolò 1550 ca.)
Credits Credits: Marciana National Library, Venice, ms. it. cl. IV, cod. 26 (=5131) carte 18v-19r
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-25.jpg
File image/jpeg, 74k
Title Fig. 22 (a) – The Norman fleet composed of commandos on small Viking vessels (1130s)
Credits Credits: Miniature dated 1130s, Miscellany on the life of St. Edmund (MS M.736), Pierpont Morgan Library and Museum, New York
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-26.jpg
File image/jpeg, 187k
Title Fig. 22 (b) – Viking vessel in the Bayeux Tapestry (11th century)
Caption Viking vessel, with a smaller connection boat. (Bayeux Tapestry Museum, official digital representation of the Bayeux Tapestry—11th century.
Credits Credits: City of Bayeux, DRAC Normandie, University of Caen Normandie, CNRS, Ensicaen, Photos: 2017—La Fabrique de patrimoines en Normandie
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-27.jpg
File image/jpeg, 103k
Caption Comparison between the Norman boat of Bayeux, and the Venetian military gondola (Franco, 1610). Both boats have been cleaned up by removing the people on board, the anchor and the cabin to highlight the hull shape. The rowers on stern have been left as a dimension reference.
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-28.jpg
File image/jpeg, 110k
Title Fig. 22 (d) – The Noah’s Ark shaped as a Viking vessel (1130s)
Caption The Noah’s Ark with hull constituted of a Viking vessel
Credits Credits: Mosaic dating 1130s, Palatine Chapel, Royal Palace of Normans, Palermo. Photo: Jean-Pierre Dalbéra, Wikipedia.
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-29.jpg
File image/jpeg, 199k
Title Fig. 23 Detail of the map of Venice dedicated to Mr Girolamo Muraro (masked irons, 1566)
Caption Engraved on copper by Paolo Forlani (1566) and printed by Bolognino Zaltieri in Venice. Size: 73 x 43 cm. Below an expanded detail of some gondolas.
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-30.jpg
File image/jpeg, 169k
Title Fig. 24 (a) – Summer evenings on boats (1610)
Caption People enjoying the cool of the evening by boating in hot summers (Franco, 1610)
Credits Credits: Internet Culturale © Marciana National Library, Venice, Italy. CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-31.jpg
File image/jpeg, 178k
Title Fig. 24 (b) – Detail of the large boat with musicians
Caption Detail of the big military gondola [MG in (a)] with musicians playing harpsicord, violin, cello, guitar and flute (Franco, 1610)
Credits Credits: Internet Culturale © Marciana National Library, Venice, Italy. CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-32.jpg
File image/jpeg, 132k
Title Fig. 25 – Detail of the rostrum-iron (1593)
Caption Credits: (a): Detail of three gondolas in the painting by Andrea Vicentino, dated 1593, in the Ducal Palace, Venice. (b): The engraving by Marcovich in Zanotto (1858). For explanations see text
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-33.jpg
File image/jpeg, 194k
Caption Gondolas at the turn between the 16th and 17th century with cabin
Credits Credit: Vecellio 1590, Gallica.bnf.fr / BNF
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-34.jpg
File image/jpeg, 133k
Caption Gondola at the turn between the 16th and 17th century with cabin and two rowers transporting brides
Credits Credits: Anonymous 17th century. Gallica.bnf.fr / BNF
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-35.jpg
File image/jpeg, 106k
Title Fig. 27 (a, b) – Details of gondolas with felze (1610)
Caption (a): Two gondolas of the early 17th century seen from rear. Violet: he seat back; yellow: the U-frames; red: the ends of horizontal rods. On the bottom: the bows of two gondolas with breasthook (blue) and prow decorations. (b): Gondola with the felze cabin showing the U-frame and the horizontal rods (i.e. swamp reeds), but without awning cover.
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-36.jpg
File image/jpeg, 138k
Title Fig. 27 (c, d) – Details of gondolas with felze (1610)
Caption (c): On the left, a man is carrying a bundle of marsh reeds (yellow). On the right, a back awning named batticoppa (cyan) has been added to the cabin. (d): Fore part of a gondola with highlighted yellow the reeds that constitute the cabin frame, and blue the prow iron.
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-37.jpg
File image/jpeg, 138k
Title Fig. 28 – Eye-cabin-iron aligned (1610)
Caption The top of the front iron, the upper edge of the cabin, and the rower’s eye lie on the same straight line. Also, the iron lies on the same vertical of the prow. Forcolas have two notches. (Franco 1610)
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-38.jpg
File image/jpeg, 117k
Title Fig. 29 (a) – Detail of irons (16th – 17th centuries)
Caption Detail of iron decorations at the turn between the 16th and 17th century. Bassano “The boarding of the Doge of Venice” 30
Credits Credits: Retouched to highlight the gondolas poorly visible. Original: oil on canvas 200 x 597 cm, dating after 1595, No., P000044 © Photographic Archive, Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-39.jpg
File image/jpeg, 90k
Title Fig. 29 (b)
Caption Detail of an iron decoration from Forabosco “Miraculous rescue from a shipwreck” 31(1646). Oil on canvas, 520 × 350 cm
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-40.jpg
File image/jpeg, 112k
Title Fig.29 (c)
Caption Detail of iron decorations at the mid 17th century. Heintz the Young, “The Procession of the Redeemer” 32. (Retouched to highlight the gondolas poorly visible.
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-41.jpg
File image/jpeg, 100k
Title Fig. 30 – Gondola transition type (1690)
Caption Gondola, detailed technical drawings at the end of the 17th century
Credits Credit: Witsen, 1690
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-42.jpg
File image/jpeg, 70k
Title Fig. 31 – Gondolas transition type (1690-1730)
Caption Gondolas of the transition type at the turn between the 17th and 18th centuries
Credits Credits: (a): Tasso, 1693; (b): Misson, 1695; (c): Wright, 1730
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-43.jpg
File image/jpeg, 135k
Title Fig. 32 (a) – Prototype of baroque gondola with wavy-wall cabin (1703-1709)
Caption Gondola transition type with wavy wall cabin. Carlevarijs 1703
Credits Credits: Mark J. Millard Architectural Collection, David K.E. Bruce Fund, Archival Resources of the National Gallery of Art, Washington
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-44.jpg
File image/jpeg, 97k
Title Fig. 32 (b)
Caption Some gondolas transition type, with wavy walls and a boat for the transport of small goods, early 1700s (Coronelli, 1708-1709)
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-45.jpg
File image/jpeg, 122k
Title Fig. 33 (a, b, c) – Prototype of baroque gondola with rigid-wall cabin (1715)
Caption Gondolas in the 1710s, with one or two rowers, a well defined iron and elegant cabin with vertical walls (Valeriani et al., 1715)
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-46.jpg
File image/jpeg, 175k
Title Fig. 34 (a, b, c, d) – The elegant baroque gondola, 18th century
Caption Gondola, by Canaletto. Details of: (a) The Grand Canal from the Rialto Bridge towards Ca’ Foscari (1725). (b) The Grand Canal from the Rialto Bridge (1725ca). (c) The Entrance to the Grand Canal (1730). (d) The Grand Canal from Palazzo Flangini to San Marcuola (1738).
Credits Credits: (a) © Gallerie Nazionali di Arte Antica, Roma (MiC) - Bibliotheca Hertziana, Istituto Max Planck per la storia dell'arte/Enrico Fontolan; (b) © Cognacq-Jay Museum, Paris Musées (license CCØ); (c) © The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston - Google Art Project; (d) The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles. Getty’s Open Content Program © J. Paul Getty Trust
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-47.jpg
File image/jpeg, 156k
Title Fig. 35 (a, b, c, d) – Baroque gondolas, 18th century
Caption Gondolas. (a) Detail of “The Grand Canal in front of the Salute” (Marieschi, ca. 1738-40). (b) Detail of “The basin of San Marco” (Marieschi, undated); (c) Detail of “The Grey Lagoon” (Gondolas on the Lagoon) (Guardi 1765); (d) Detail of “The Departure of the Gondola” (Tiepolo, 1760s).
Credits Credits: (a) Museo Nacional Thyssen Bornemisza, Madrid; (b) Gallica, Bibliothèque Nationale de France; (c) Google Art Project, Museo Poldi Pezzoli, Milano; (d) Bequest of Mrs. Charles Wrightsman, 2019, Metropolitan Museum, New York
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-48.jpg
File image/jpeg, 148k
Title Fig. 36 – The long gondola of the 19th century
Caption Gondola of the 19th century, with dimensional scale (Quadri, 1830)
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-49.jpg
File image/jpeg, 142k
Title Fig. 37 (a, b) – The skewed modern gondola (20th century)
Caption (a): Horizontal cross section of a gondola, showing the flat bottom (green) and the curved hull (black). The right side is different than the left side. (b): A modern gondola with skewed shape and tilted rest position.
Credits Credits: (a): the author, (b): Pexels, photo: Mark Neal
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-50.jpg
File image/jpeg, 379k
Title Fig. 38 – Contrast between oar and motor traffic (1900)
Caption A gondola while is passing near a steamboat vaporetto that is emitting a long plume of white smoke from the chimney (Bacon, 1900)
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-51.jpg
File image/jpeg, 154k
Title Fig. 39 (a, b) – Example of dated images
Caption (a) Detail of the map of Venice by Seutter (1730). The gondola on the left is the novel type with iron rods on prow and curl on stern, while the other has the same metal decoration with rods on both ends; (b) The same view from Zeiller (1640) or the Heirs of Merian (1688) edition
Credits Credits: Gallica.bnf.fr / BNF)
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-52.jpg
File image/jpeg, 199k
Title Fig. 40 (a, b) – Gondolas with unrealistically tall cabins, which hide the view
Caption (a): Detail of symmetrical gondolas and tall cabin in an engraving by Aveline (second half 18th century); (b): Detail of the engraving by Matthäus Merian the Elder (1635 ca)
Credits Credit: (a): Harvard Library – Curiosity Collection – Scanned Maps, published in Zeiller (1640), the Heirs of Merian (1688) edition, as well as in Aveline
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-53.jpg
File image/jpeg, 211k
Title Fig. 41 – Gondolas with fancy curl
Caption Gondolas in the engravings by Amman (second half of the 16th century)
Credits Credits: Paris Musées, Petit Palais, Musée des Beaux-Arts de la Ville de Paris license CCØ
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-54.jpg
File image/jpeg, 254k
Title Fig. 42 (a, b) – Gondolas with brides (1610)
Caption The caption in (a) is: “In this way brides go by gondola, accompanied by many gondolas, to invite their relatives who live in monasteries”. (b) The same, but the caption is shortened, adapted with mistakes (Franco, 1610)
Credits Credits: Internet Culturale © Marciana National Library, Venice. CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-55.jpg
File image/jpeg, 159k
Title Fig. 43 (a, b) – Celebrations for King Henry III (1574)
Caption (a): Celebrations for the arrival of King Henry III. Top: the engraving by Zanoi (1574) showing the triumph arch, cannon salvos, and the Venice fleet. (b) Detail of the central part showing the Bucintoro ship with the King, the admiral Galley and a lot of gondolas. For the explanatory writings see the text.
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-56.jpg
File image/jpeg, 837k
Title Fig. 44 (a) – Gilded gondolas near a Bucintoro and other boats
Caption Below: The same but the gilded gondola in front has been put into evidence (Canaletto, around 1738, Detail of the return of the Bucintoro to the pier on Ascension Day.
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-57.jpg
File image/jpeg, 170k
Title Fig. 44 (b, c) – Gilded gondolas for celebrations
Caption (b): Gilded and normal gondolas in “the Procession of gondolas at San Marco Basin”, Antonio Jolie, 1742. (c): A gilded-like gondola with red cabin for noblemen or local authorities (Vanvitelli, 1697; detail of View of Venice from the Island of San Giorgio33)
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-58.jpg
File image/jpeg, 132k
Title Fig. 44 (d, e) – Gilded gondolas for high-ranking dignitaries (1697-1715)
Caption (d) Finely decorated gondola of the Ambassador Prince Ercolani with many gilded decorations and statues (Coronelli 1697); (e) Decorated gondola of the Ambassador Count Colloredo. This drawing is dated 1715 and the gondola has the front iron (Valeriani et al., 1715)
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-59.jpg
File image/jpeg, 113k
Title Fig. 44 (f) – A gondola for royal amusements (1761)
Caption A multi-coloured gondola at the Royal Palace, Munich. Bellotto, 1761
Credits Credits: Samuel H. Kress Foundation, New York, Archival Resources of the National Gallery of Art, Washington
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-60.jpg
File image/jpeg, 275k
Title Fig. 45 (a, b) – Gondolas welcoming the Emperor Franz Joseph (1875)
Caption (a) The decorated gondola at the visit of Franz Joseph Emperor of Austria to Victor Emmanuel II King of Italy in 1875 (Lyell, 1891). (b) Procession of gondolas on the Grand Canal welcoming the Emperor (Illustrated London News, 1875)
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-61.jpg
File image/jpeg, 109k
Title Fig. 46
Caption Stern and bow terminals of the various gondola types. 0, A, without iron decorations; B with military rostrums; B/C transition model; C,D,E bow iron and stern curl of the various gondola types since the 18th century
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-62.jpg
File image/jpeg, 29k
Title Table 2
Caption Overview of the different gondola types considered in this paper
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-63.jpg
File image/jpeg, 48k
Title Fig. 47 (a, b) – The acqua alta with gondolas floating in San Marco Square
Caption (a): Vincenzo Chilone (1825); (b) Felix Ziem (after 1863)
Credits Credits: (a) Wikipedia; (b) Paris Musées, Petit Palais, Musée des Beaux-Arts de la Ville de Paris, license CCØ
URL http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/docannexe/image/14364/img-64.jpg
File image/jpeg, 92k
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References

Electronic reference

Dario Camuffo, The Gondola: a boat to respond to the history, and the morpho-dynamics of the Venice LagoonMéditerranée [Online], Paleoenvironment, Geoarchaeology, Historical Geography, Online since 18 January 2023, connection on 26 April 2025. URL: http://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/14364; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4000/mediterranee.14364

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About the author

Dario Camuffo

National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Atmospheric Sciences and Climate, Corso Stati Uniti 4, 35127 Padua, Italy, https://scholar.google.it/citations?hl=it&user=jc0RCdMAAAAJ&view_op=list_works&sortby=pubdate, d.camuffo@isac.cnr.it

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