Bibliographie
Abreviations
LRCW= Late Roman Coarse Wares, Cooking Wares and Amphorae in the Mediterranean.
Bibliography
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Notes
This research was financed by the National Science Centre, awarded as a part of placement funding for postdoctoral internships, based on decision No. DEC-2015/16/S/HS3/00098.
Jouanna 1996, p. 422, 424, 431.
The term ‘Greek wine’ in this paper refers to a beverage that was made in the Aegean region, which means in continental Greece, on the Aegean Islands and in western Asia Minor.
Jouanna 1996; 2002; Alessi 1999; Touwaide 2000; Béguin 2002; Fausti 2012; Roghi 2012; Mudd 2015.
Momigliano 1984, p. 438.
For example those mentioning that a Trojan hero, Aeneas, was the ancestor of Remus and Romulus, the founders of the Eternal City, see Gruen 1992, p. 6-51; Gruen 2013, p. 1-8.
Wiseman 2008; Wiseman 2004, p. 13-36, 87-118.
Bartoloni 2003; Di Sandro 1981, p. 5-10; Zevi 1985; p. 119; Slej 2008, p. 204-208; Sacchetti 2013, p. 30; Komar 2020, Chapter 1.
Gruen 1990 and 1992. See also Wiseman 1994, especially p. 1-36; 68-85; 90-97; Wiseman 1995, p. 43.
Dunbabin 2003, p. 12-3.
Komar 2014a; Komar 2020, Chapter 2.
OCD s.v. ‘Dioscorides (2)’.
Osbaldeston 2000, p. xx.
Flemming 2000, p. 476-477.
Athenaeus also copied a fragment of an uncertain physician (Deipn. 32f-33d.), which according to Brock – Wirtjes 2000, p. 456 could be attributed to Rufus of Ephesus, a physician of the later 1st c. AD.
Plin., H.N., 1, 14, 23. For more about Pliny’s sources see Scarborough 1986.
Tchernia 1997, p. 1247-1248.
Grant 2000, p. 2-3; Hankinson 2009, p. 4-5.
Nutton 2004, p. 216, 240.
Tchernia 1986, p. 272.
Gal., MM X, 832-3K.
Gal., Ant., 14, 28-9K.
Fabricius 1972, p. 185-189, 192-197, 200-201.
Brock 1916, p. xix.
Although the Hippocratic Corpus is composed of texts by various authors associated with the Coan and Cnidian school of ancient Greek medicine dated mostly to the Classical period, but including writings from the Hellenistic period or even from the 1st and 2nd c. AD, the books that mention Greek wines (Diseases and Internal Affections) most probably originated about 400 BC and were influenced by the Cnidian school.
Roman Italy is the main scope of this paper, as there is little literary evidence for the medical use of Greek wines in other areas of the Roman empire.
Di Sandro 1981, p. 5-10; Zevi 1985, p. 119; Slej 2008, p. 204-208; Sacchetti 2013, p. 30. It should be noted that in archaic Etruscan graves Greek amphorae were considerably more numerous and their range was broader, including also Clazomenian, Milesian, Lesbian and Thasian containers, see e.g. Slaska 1985, p. 19-21; Sacchetti 2013, p. 64-65, 75-76, 80-81, 93-95, 101-102.
Boersma – Yntema – Van der Werff 1986, p. 97, 99, 117; De Sena – Ikäheimo 2003, p. 304-307; Peña 2007, p. 84-98 and passim; Albiach et al. 2008, p. 249-264; Caspio et al. 2009, p. 487, fig. 35, p. 496, tav. VIII; Ferrandes 2014, p. 353-354, 363-364. Wine as a content of amphoras from Ikos is suggested by Doulgéri-Intzessiloglou – Garlan 1990.
Plaut., Curc., 78; Poenul., 699; Rud., 588.
Cato, Agr., 24, 105, 112.
Plin., H.N., 14, 95. Pliny mentions a quadrantal (ca. 26,2 l.) here, but it was explained by Frank 1931, p. 278, that a quartarius is more appropriate.
Komar 2014a, p. 237.
Van der Veen 2003, p. 410.
Varro, Rust., 2, praef.
Verg., Georg., 2, 90-91, 102; Hor., Carm., 3, 19; 10, 17, Serm., 1, 10; 2, 3; 2, 4; Col., 12, 37; Mart., 1,1, 106; Plin., H.N., 14, 73-75, 78-79, 81, 95-97, 117.
Sat. Men., 104b.
Plin., H.N., 14, 96: L. Lucullus puer apud patrem numquam lautum convivium vidit, in quo plus semel Graecum vinum daretur: ipse cum rediit ex Asia, milia cadum congiarium divisit amplius centum. C. Sentius, quem praetorem vidimus, Chium vinum suam domum inlatum dicebat tum primum, cum sibi cardiaco medicus dedisset: Hortensius super X cadum heredi reliquit.
Plin., H.N., 14, 73-75 and 81.
Panella – Rizzo 2014, p. 335-340.
Bezeczky 2013, p. 70-71.
Rizzo 2003, p. 7-17, 146-147, tab. 26b, 163-165, tab 27b and 27c, 175, tab. 29, 180, tab. 30b; Casaramona et al. 2010, p. 113; Tempesta 2011, p. 193-196.
Miniero 1999, p. 323-324; Grete 2003, p. 211; Timby 2004, p. 385-387; Albiach et al. 2008, p. 249-264.
Panella – Rizzo 2014, p. 411-412, tab. 8a and b.
There was a special waste heap of oriental, mostly Cretan amphorae, found in the area of Nuovo Mercato di Testaccio, see Casaramona et al. 2010; Tempesta 2011.
See Komar 2020, Chapter 3 for a comparison of the proportions of wine amphorae in different contexts in Latium and Campania.
See Komar 2014a.
Panella – Rizzo 2014, p. 327-329.
Casalini 2015, p. 543, 545; Filippi et al. 2004; Fontana et al. 2004; Munzi et al. 2004; Pacetti 2004; Paganelli 2004; Rizzo et al. 2004; Saguì – Coletti 2004; Vatta – Bertoldi 2004. Agora 273/Cistern Type amphorae were also found in Rome, Naples, Puzzuoli, Cumae and Salerno see Arthur 1990, p. 281, 284-285, 288. For the latest examples of the LRA1, which have been found in Crypta Balbi in Rome, see Saguì – Manacorda 1995, p. 125, fig. 4. It is worth mentioning that scholars do not entirely agree regarding the content (wine, olive oil, other product) and origin of LRA1, LRA2, see Karagiorgou 2001; Reynolds 2005; Pieri 2007 and Opait 2010.
Fronto, Eloq., 1, 4.
Geopon., 8, 23-24. These recipes probably concern the production of imitations of Thasian and Coan wines; however, they still provide evidence that these wines continued to be known in the Roman world, so it seems unlikely that their production ceased long ago.
Carm., 17, 15.
Venantius Fortunatus, Vita S. Martini, 2, 81–2.
Plaut., Curc., 78-9; Poen., 699-700; Plin., H.N., 14, 73.
Tchernia 1986, p. 102.
For more on this, see Komar 2014a.
Other containers of the supposed Aegean and/or Anatolian origin were discovered on the Apennine Peninsula, but the type of wine that they carried is unknown. For the variety of eastern amphoras in Rome and Ostia see for example Rizzo 2003; Panella - Rizzo 2014.
Hipp., Morb., 3, 17, 41-43; Int. Af., 22, 474; Aret., CA, 6, 3, 10 and CD, 7, 5, 14; Dsc., Mat. Med., 1, 129, 131; 2, 82, 91, 141; 5, 6, 9, 10-2, 85 (Wellmann); Gal., Vic. Att., 93-95 (Kalbfleisch); San.Tu., 275-276, 334-335K; Bon. Mal. Suc., 5, 802, 803K; MM, 10, 832-3, 8356K; MMG, 11, 52K; SMT 11, 604K; Comp. Med. Loc., 12, 462, 728, 774, 777, 867K; 13, 3, 8, 11, 15, 26, 29, 30-3, 49, 52–3, 70, 212, 215, 323, 355-6K, Comp. Med. Gen., 13, 405, 513-4, 659, 1035; Ant., 14, 28-9, 111, 153, 162, 202-3K; Rem., 14, 454 and 470K; Orib., Eclog. med., 73, 18-220; Col. med., 5, 6, 30-31, 45; Syn., 2, 66, 4; 131, 1-2; 136, 1; 139, 1-2.
It should be noted that not all geographic epithets in ancient medical texts regard places of origin (see Totelin 2009 and 2015), but luckily this does not refer to wines.
Gal., SanTu 6, 276, 334-335, 337, 338K; Bon. Mal. Suc., 6, 800, 801, 805, 806K; MM, 10, 483, 833K; Comp. Med. Loc., 12, 517; Comp. Med. Gen., 13, 11, 212K; Vic. Att., 93-95, 99 (Kalbfleisch).
Except for Catacecaumenitan mentioned by Vitr., De arch., 8, 3, 12 and Plin., H.N., 14, 54 and 75.
Gal., Vic. Att., 12, 99-102 (transl. Singer).
Hipp., Morb., 3, 17, 41-43; Int. Af., 22, 474K.
Plin., H.N., 14, 73: his addidit Lesbium Erasistrati maximi medici auctoritas, circiter CCCCL anno urbis Romae.
Roman Amphorae: a digital resource, University of Southampton, 2005 (updated 2014), accessed 8.04.2017.
Lund 2011, p. 287-289 and fig. 13.3, 13.4.
Hipp., Morb., 3, 17, 41-43: Τοῦτο δὲ, Θάσιον οἶνον παλαιὸν, πέντε καὶ εἴκοσιν ὕδατος καὶ ἕνα οἴνου δίδου. All translations of Greek and Latin are from the Loeb editions if not otherwise stated.
Plin., H.N., 14, 55.
Alessi 2002, p. 108.
Plin., H.N., 14, 117; Ath., Deipn., 31f.
Salviat 1986, p. 194-195.
Plin., H.N., 14, 73.
Salviat 1986, p. 178.
Tchernia 1990, p. 65.
Kourakou-Dragona 2013, p. 124.
Hipp., Acut., 14.
Hipp., Epid., 5, 52; 7, 119.
Bertier 1972, Fr. 46 = Ath., Deipn., 32d.
Dsc., Mat. Med., 5, 6, 2 (Wellmann).
Touwaide 2000, p. 106, 108.
Plin., H.N., 33, 39: stomacho minus utile est pingue, nigrum, sed corpora magis alit.
Gal. MM, 10, 837K. According to Mudd 2015, p. 143 n. 348, similar logic is attested in the Hippocratic Corpus and in fragments by Mnesitheus of Athens.
Mudd 2015, p. 386.
Wilkins 2002, p. 50; Gal., Vic. Att., 12, 93.
Gal., MM, 10, 837K; Jouanna 1996, p. 424; Béguin 2002, p. 147.
Hipp., Int. Af., 22, 474: πινέτω δὲ οἶνον Κῷον ὑπόστρυφνον ὡς μελάντατον.
Dsc., Mat. Med., 5, 72, 2 (Wellmann).
Dsc., Mat. Med., 5, 6, 9 (Wellmann).
Gal., Rem. Parab., 14, 470K.
Gal., Comp. Med. Loc., 12, 867K.
Gal., Vic. Att., 12; Wilkins 2002, p. 50.
For example, Galen in The thinning diet uses mostly these epithets, see Gal. Vic. Att.
Gal., Hip: De vict. acut. comm., 15, 627K.
Hor., Serm., 2, 4, 29; Cato, Agr., 24; Plin., H.N., 14, 78.
Tchernia 1986, p. 343, Tchernia – Brun 1999, p. 133, Tchernia 2001, p. 128-129; Dsc., Mat. Med., 5, 6, 11 (Wellmann); Gal., San.Tu., 6, 275K; MMG, 11, 87K; Mart., 2, 40, 5-6; 8, 55 (56), 14.
Gal., MM, 10, 834K.
Tchernia – Brun 1999, p. 132-133 and fig. 173.
Ath., Deipn., 26a.
Cels., 26, 1-2.
Dsc., Mat. Med., 5, 6, 1 (Wellmann).
Dig. 33, 6, 11. Translation by S. P. Scott.
Tchernia 1986, p. 29.
Tchernia 1986, p. 30.
Plin., H.N., 14, 78.
Ath., Deipn., 26d-27d. The list of wines is spoken by Athenaeus’ character called Galen, and it is commonly attributed to Galen of Pergamon, the physician. However, its style and vocabulary make such identification questionable, see Brock – Wirtjes 2000, p. 456-460.
Béguin 2002, p. 146; Mudd 2015, p. 171; based on Gal., San.Tu., 6, 392K; Caus. Morb., 7, 6K; SMT, 12, 88K.
Plin., H.N., 23, 38.
1/12 of a sextarius, it is 0.0445 l.
Plin., H.N., 23, 19: radix decocta in aqua pota in vini Coi cyathis duobus umorem alvi ciet, ideo datur.
Plin., H.N., 14, 78.
Kourakou-Dragona 2013, p. 122, 124.
Varro, Rust., 2, praef.
Bertier 1972, Fr. 46 = Ath., Deipn., 32d.
Dsc., Mat. Med., 5, 6, 3 (Wellmann).
Dsc., Mat. Med., 5, 6, 9 (Wellmann).
Plin., N.H., 23, 46.
Plin., N.H., 14, 73: nunc gratia ante omnia est Clazomenio, postquam parcius mari condiunt.
Dsc., Mat. Med., 5, 6, 9 (Wellmann); Roghi 2012, p. 366.
Plin., H.N., 14, 75.
Ps.- Galen, Suc., 19,738K; Paul Aeg., 7, 25, 15.
Gal., Comp. Med. Loc., 12, 462K.
Gal., Comp. Med. Gen., 23, 1035K.
Plin., H.N., 14, 76.
Ath., Deipn., 33b.
Dsc., Mat. Med., 5, 6, 5 (Wellmann).
Dsc., Mat. Med., 5, 34 (Wellmann).
Plin., H.N., 23, 39 and 45-47.
Aret., CA, 6, 3, 10: οἶνος εὐώδης μὴ κάρτα στύφων, παχὺς δὲ ὡς ἥκιϲτα. ῾Ελληνικοὶ μὲν Χῖος ἢ Λέϲβιος, ὁκόσοι τε ἄλλοι νησιῶται λεπτοί.
Dalby 2003, p. 359.
Brock – Wirtjes 2000, p. 456-458.
Plin., H.N., 14, 96.
Orib., Col. med., 5, 6, 45.
Gal., Comp. Med. Loc., 12, 728K.
Gal., MMG, 11, 52K; SMT, 11, 604K; Comp. Med. Gen., 13, 405K, 513-4K. It should be noted that wines were generally regarded as warming by Hippocrates, see Alessi 2002, p. 108, which means that Chian, Lesbian and Tmolian must have stood out from the others.
Gal., Comp. Med. Gen., 13, 659K, MM, 10, 835K; Vic. Att., 93, 1-95, 1 (Kalbfleisch); San. Tu., 6, 275-6, 334-5K.
Dsc., Mat. Med., 5, 6, 8 (Wellmann).
Scrib. Larg., Comp., 26, 36, 126, 165, 170.
Orib., Col. Med., 5, 6, 45; Gal., Comp. Med. Loc., 13, 513K.
Gal., Rem., 14, 454K; Gal., Comp. Med. Loc., 12, 680K.
Gal., Comp. Med. Loc., 12, 867K.
Gal., Ant., 14, 107-108K.
Gal., Ant., 14, 111K.
Gal., Comp. Med. Loc., 13, 70K.
Gal., Ant., 14, 153, 162, 185, 202-203K.
Dsc., Mat. Med., 5, 6, 8 (Wellmann); for a recipe for an eye-medicine with the use of ebony and Chian see Dsc., Mat. Med., 1, 98, 2 (Wellmann); whereas with the use of basil and Chian, see Dsc., Mat. Med., 2, 141, 1 (Wellmann); Gal., Comp. Med. Loc., 12, 728, 774K; Orib., Syn., 2, 131, 1-2; 136,1; 139, 1-2.
Gal., Comp. Med. Loc., 12, 777K.
Orib., Syn., 2, 66, 4.
Aret., CA, 6, 3, 10.
Ath., Deipn., 32f.
Mat. Med., 5, 6, 9.
Orib., Col. Med., 5, 6, 45; Gal., Comp. Med. Loc., 13, 513K.
Orib., Col. Med., 5, 6, 31.
Dsc., Mat. Med., 5, 6, 14 (Wellmann).
Gal., Bon. Mal. Suc., 6, 802K.
Gal., MM, 10, 835K.
Aet., 2, 252, 23.
Dsc., Mat. Med., 5, 6, 9 (Wellmann).
Strab., 14, 1, 15.
Gal., San. Tu., 6, 334-335K; Bon. Mal. Suc., 6, 803K; Orib., Col. Med., 5, 6, 30-31. On bilious bodies see Béguin 2002, p. 142.
Gal., MM, 10, 835K.
Gal., Comp. Med. Loc., 13, 212K.
Gal., Comp. Med. Loc., 13, 8 and 25K; Aet., 7, 55, 65-69.
Gal., Comp. Med. Loc., 13, 46K.
Scrib. Larg., Comp., 30, 5; 55, 28; 74, 4.
Aret., CD, 8, 13, 6.
Plin., H.N., 20, 208.
Gal., Comp. Med. Loc., 13, 3, 11, 15, 26, 29, 30, 32, 33, 49-50, 70K.
Gal., Comp. Med. Loc., 13, 323, 355-356K.
Kourakou-Dragona 2013, p. 15.
Gal., VA, 99; ΒΜ, 6, 800-801K; San.Tu., 6, 337K; Hipp. Vict. Acut., 15, 645K. Also, Gal., MM, 10, 833-834K and SF, 11, 648K mention ᾿Αλβάτης, which was an example of wine that was thick as well as sweet and dry/bitter at the same time. This beverage was not recommended. This probably also refers to Cilician ‘Abates’.
ST, 6, 337.
Ath., Deipn., 33b.
Decker 2005, 53, Plin., H.N., 14, 24: vina primo dulcia austeritatem annis accipiunt.
Plin., H.N., 14, 81.
Kourakou-Dragona 2013, p. 56.
Komar 2020, Chapter 2.
Komar 2014a, p. 234-235; Komar 2014b, p. 117-118.
Mart., 13, 106.
Verg., Georg., 2, 101-102: Rhodian was ‘dis et mensis accepta secundis’ and Plin., H.N., 14, 79: ‘Rhodium Coo simile est’.
Komar 2014b, p. 127-128.
Gal., MM, 10, 832K: εἰ δ' ὁ κάμνων εἴθιστο χρῆσθαι περί τόν τῆς ὑγιείας χρόνον οἴνοις γλυκέσιν, οὐδὲν κωλύει τούτῳ δοῦναι τόν γλυκύτερον Φαλερῖνον. ἐπὶ μέντοι τῆς ᾿Ασίας καὶ τῆς ῾Ελλάδος, ὅσα τε τούτοις ἔθνη γειτνιᾷ, μὴ παρόντων τῶν εἰρημένων οἴνων, ἔσθ᾿ ὅτε κάλλιστος πρὸς ἀνάδοσιν τῶν ἐν ἐκείνοις τοῖς χωρίοις εὐπορουμένων οἴνων ὁ Ἀρουίσιός τε καὶ ὁ Λέσβιος.
Gal., MM, 10, 835K: πειρᾶσθαι μέν οὖν ἀεί τόν ἄριστον αἱρεῖσθαι. μὴ παρόντως δὲ τόν ὁμοιότατον ἐκείνῳ κατὰ τὰ λελεγμένα γνωρίσματα.
Gal. Bon. Mal. Suc., 6, 802K; Comp. Med. Loc., 12, 728K.
For the development of Roman winemaking see Tchernia 1986, p. 34 and Tchernia 1997, p. 1249-1253.
Tchernia 1998, p. 506; Tchernia – Brun 1999, p. 126.
Komar 2020, Chapter 2.
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