- 1 The Ostia-Projects I (Excavation) and II (Graduate-school) were both financed by the Stiftung Humbo (...)
- 2 The western half of this sanctuary was excavated in 1913 by Raffaele Finelli and Dante Vaglieri (Fi (...)
- 3 Gering – Menge – Pedersen 2022. See also Gering 2022 and Gering 2023. These papers also contain an (...)
1The Ostia Forum Project’s surveys and excavations (2016-2024)1 in the centre of Ostia brought to light an unknown sanctuary, in use from the Middle Republic well into the Imperial period.2 The area of the sanctuary’s main altar has recently been published.3 This paper focusses on the area of the libation altars which is located east of the main altar’s drain and ramp (fig. 1-3).
Fig. 1. Orthophoto of the area TFR2 indicating the 2019-excavation trenches and the east-west section (fig. 2) (A. Gering 2021).
Fig. 2. East-west section of the area TFR2 showing all building phases of the Libation Area and of the adjacent fire altar’s ramp (OFP 2019 / A. Gering 2019-2023).
Fig. 3. Libation Area, view from the east: last stage of excavation (2019) showing cavities 2 and 3 (A. Gering 2019/2022).
2The Libation Area occupies a small section of the TFR-Sanctuary in the immediate east of the main altar (fig. 4). In all of its building phases, it is defined by a circular opening in the ground connected to a subterranean cavity. The width of these openings varies from 12-17 cm (ca. 0,5 Roman foot) to 22-29 cm (ca. 0.75-1 Roman foot) in diameter.
3It is composed of two major phases: the Republican phase, which is defined by stone elements, and the Imperial phase, which is defined by terracotta elements. While both of these building phases can be divided into further sub-phases, the overall layout remains the same within the two main building phases. In the following, a short introduction into the general setup of both the stone – and the terracotta phase aims to provide a first overview of the structures constituting the Libation Area.
Fig. 4. Orthophoto of the Libation Area indicating the position of the Libation Altars (La1?-La7) (A. Gering 2019).
Fig. 5. The ceramic objects found in the Libation Area (regarding the precise findspot of each object see fig. 4) (S. Menge 2023 / Pottery Drawings: T.B. Pedersen / Photo of the coin: N. Daviddi).
4The Republican Libation Area is defined by a subterranean cavity with an opening framed by various stone elements: a tufa block with a half-round cut-out, a small tufa block with a central concave indent, and a second tufa block bordering the opening to the north. To its south and its east, these phases of the Libation Area were bordered by a series of tile and tufa pavements.
5This general setup is assumed to have stayed in use (with minor changes) until a significant renovation of the TFR-Sanctuary which took place in several stages between the mid-1st century BC and the Trajanic period. In relation to the Libation Area, this renovation led to the burial of the Republican stone structures and the adjacent tufa pavement and thus, to the subsequent shift of employing elements in terracotta which were set into new beaten-earth pavements.
6While the Libation Area in its earlier phases was bordered to the south by a series of tile and tufa pavements, the subsequent libation altars consisted of pits which were dug directly into the beaten-earth pavement, defined by various terracotta elements.
7The walls of these pits were lined with terracotta, tile, brick, and pottery fragments and reinforced with mortar (fig. 14). When the sanctuary was abandoned, the openings of the pits were sealed with pottery and tile fragments and/or stones.
8For the building phases 5 and 5a, the use of a large cylindrical terracotta altar which would have been set into the opening of the pit is proposed.
- 4 For the construction of the well, a foundation trench at least 2 m deep and 1,50 m in diameter had (...)
9Before briefly discussing each building phase of the Libation Area in further detail, it should be noted that most of its stone structures were found in a tilted position: The construction of the well in a much later period caused several of the stone blocks adhering to the first four building phases to partially sink. While their eastern side dropped by circa 10-20 cm, their western side remained in situ. This circumstance is taken into account in the profile drawings, in which the original find situation in 2019 is marked in grey and the original position, which can be reconstructed with relative certainty, is marked in black. 4
- 5 Concerning the location of the area TFR2 and the TFR-Sanctuary in general, see Gering – Menge – Ped (...)
10In the following, the structures of the Libation Area will be discussed in chronological order starting with the lowest, i.e. the earliest phases. The main building phases are represented in tab. 1.5
Tab. 1. The phases of the altar area TFR2.
| Building phase |
Level(s) of the libation altar (asl) |
Characteristics of the Libation Area |
Pavement level area tfr2 (asl) |
Pavement type |
| (1) |
(1.18 m) |
(stone block U1 with half-round cut-out). |
(1.10-1.18 m) |
(Beaten-earth floor?) |
| 2 |
1.35 m |
Stone block with central half-round cut-out (U2) above subterranean cavity (C2). |
(1.30 m) |
Beaten-earth floor? |
| 3 |
1.45 m |
Stone block with central half-round cut-out (U2) above subterranean cavity (C2) with added stone blocks bordering the opening:
– tufa block north of the opening (U3a)
– tufa block east of the opening (U3b) with a central shallow concave indent
– tufa block south of the opening (V2) with a half-round cut-out to match the abovementioned tufa block (U2). |
1.54-1.60 m |
Tile pavement |
| 4 |
1.45-1.50 m |
The Libation Area is located in a lower position compared to the tufa slab pavement which borders the area to the south with one massive tufa block (U4a). |
1.70-1.75 m |
Tufa slab pavement |
| 5 |
1.87-1.96 m
Terracotta altar: 2.07-2.16 m |
Terracotta altar (La5) on top of a simple opening in the beaten-earth floor (SU 023). |
1.87-1.90 m |
Beaten-earth floor |
| 5a |
1.87–1.96 m
Terracotta altar: 2.07-2.16 m |
Terracotta altar (La5) on top of a simple opening in the beaten-earth floor (SU 023), slightly raised level. |
1.96 m |
Repair of beaten-earth floor |
| 6 |
2.14 m |
(opening SU 023 closed). |
2.07 m |
Beaten-earth floor |
| 7 |
2.26 m |
Small opening lined with tile and pottery fragments (SU 024). |
2.22 m
2.43 m |
Mortar
Beaten-earth floor |
11The remaining structures of the first building phase of the Libation Area were situated north and, thus, outside of the specific area discussed in this paper. The small structure is comprised of a Cappellaccio-tufa block with a half-round cut-out (U1) and its counterpart: a second but less well-preserved tufa block exhibiting part of a similar half-round cut-out (V1). As these structures were affected by the later construction of the well, their original position and function cannot be reconstructed with certainty.
12Building phase 2 exhibits a very similar block of Cappellaccio-tufa (U2) which is situated above a subterranean cavity (C2) with its central cut-out positioned immediately above the cavity’s opening (fig. 3-4-6). The opening had an estimated diameter of 15-16 cm (ca. 0.5 Roman foot). The surface of the tufa block was severely discoloured, most probably due to the constant influx of liquids. As mentioned above, the construction of the well in its direct vicinity had led to its partial sinking into the cavity, and thus, resulted in its tilted position. In contrast to the structures of building phase 1, the original position of the tufa blocks in building phase 2 can be reconstructed due to its western part which did not sink into the cavity / the foundation trench and clearly stands in relation to the adjacent main altar’s ramp (fig. 6: R2).
Fig. 6. The building phases of the Libation Area: the earliest pavement levels in relation to the lowest libation altar (U2) (A. Gering 2019-2023).
- 6 44 cm wide and 15 cm tall (1 ½ RF × ½ RF).
- 7 U3b broke into several fragments but is to be reconstructed as an approximate square (1½ × 1½ RF. ½ (...)
- 8 The block V2 was about 10 cm tall and was situated on a level of 1,35 m ASL.
13In this building phase, the block U2 with its half-round cut-out was still in use, but its opening was bordered by several added tufa blocks: the tufa block U3a6 borders the opening to the cavity in the north, the tufa block U3b borders it in the east,7 and a smaller block with a half-round cut-out (V2)8 was placed south of the opening, acting as a counterpart to the block U2 and raising the opening to the cavity slightly (fig. 7).
- 9 The possible ritual use of this stone block will be discussed in detail in section 5.
14The block U3b is of particular interest, not only due to its profiled edge, but also because it exhibits a central concave indent on its top surface (fig. 4-7-8-9). This small depression is most probably the key functional element. Despite the tufa block being damaged, it is obvious that we are not dealing with a perforation as it is the case with the tufa block U2, but merely an indentation. In addition, the entire surface of U3b consisted of several fine layers of stucco applied onto the tufa, all while retaining the central depression. Apparently, in this manner, the surface was sealed multiple times, possibly to prevent liquids from being absorbed into the porous rock.9
- 10 The excavation of the fire altar has been published in detail, see Gering – Menge – Pedersen 2022.
15All of the newly added functional elements are visible in the reconstruction of the third building phase of the altar (fig. 9), visualising the spatial relationship between the Libation Area and the adjacent fire altar.10
Fig. 7. The building phases of the Libation Area: phase 3 and the extension of the Libation Area (A. Gering 2019-2023).
Fig. 8. The building phases of the Libation Area: the raised level in building phase 4 and the continued use of the lowest libation altar (U2).
Fig. 9. 3D-Reconstruction of the fire altar and the adjoining libation altar (building phases 3-4) (S. Götz / A. Gering 2023).
16Building phase 4 does not exhibit any major changes in the layout of the Libation Area: the only minor addition are two flat stone slabs (fig. 8: U3c and U3d).
- 11 The analysis of possible traces of this organic matter on the porous stone surface has so far remai (...)
17A striking detail which is also relevant for the interpretation of the successive phases is the discolouration of those stone slabs. When the cavity C3 was opened first during the excavation, its surface was coloured purple to black, but after merely a few hours, it appeared white to light grey. It is thus possible that the black discolouration stemmed from organic matter, preserved in the sealed cavity. 11
- 12 The block is 21 cm thick, corresponding to circa ¾RF.
18A new addition in building phase 4 is a large tufa block used as a boundary of the area in the south (U4a). Viewed from above, it is not distinguishable from the surrounding pavement slabs of the tufa pavement, but when viewed from the side, it becomes obvious that it is about 10 cm thicker than the pavement’s slabs (fig. 3).12 Consequently, it can be assumed that this massive block delimited the enclosure of the Libation Area in this building phase.
- 13 During the process of burying the old stone structures, several objects were ritually deposited wit (...)
19The layout of the area underwent major changes in building phase 5 (fig. 11). As mentioned above, the construction of the well in the immediate north of the Libation Area led to several severe changes, the most significant being the burial of the old stone structures:13 whereas previously all the stone blocks bordering the opening of the cavity had consisted of tufa, now, at a considerably higher pavement level and slightly offset to the south, there is a pit bordered and consolidated by mortar and brick fragments (fig. 10: SU 023). The opening of the pit is perfectly round and exhibits an outer diameter of 29 cm, which corresponded to 1 Roman foot (fig. 4: SU 023; fig. 12: cavity 3). This very “plain” pit would seem like a rather simple replacement for the elaborate stone structures.
20The answer could lie in a large cylindrical terracotta object (La5) found in the area TFR2: the shape and diameter of its base match the opening of the pit perfectly; the outer diameter of its base measures circa 22 cm, while the upper diameter measures, just as the pit, 29 cm (fig. 10-11).
21As some parts of the Ostian object are left rough and unsmoothed while others show clear residue of red paint, it is evident which parts are thus meant to be seen and which parts would be hidden. The object consists of three parts: the base, the top, and the lid. The object’s original total height is difficult to reconstruct, as so far none of the wall fragments were retrieved and the top and base could hence not be connected (fig. 10).
22The base exhibits one significant feature distinguishing it from the abovementioned cistern mouths, wellheads, arulae, and thymiateria: it exhibits a ring base too slim to provide a secure stand, which means that it was made to be placed into the opening of the libation hole itself. Its lower half has been left unworked and was most probably meant to be immersed entirely into the soil, while its upper half is decorated with mouldings once covered in red paint.
23If we assume that the formerly elaborately stone-set openings of earlier building phases (phases 1-4) were not to be replaced by a simple hole in the ground in building phase 5, in which, in contrast, both the fire altar and the adjacent temple were elaborately monumentalised, the terracotta object might have been placed on the described enclosure of the pit’s opening.
24In the beginning of the process of abandoning the sanctuary, the terracotta object (La5) was demolished. Its fragments were buried within the foundation trench for the northern wall of the area TFR2 (SU 060) and in the layers sealing off the altar area (fig. 12: SU 002a and SU 002b).
- 14 Similar putealia were found for instance in Marzabotto in the Emilia Romagna (Massa-Pairault et al.(...)
- 15 Colonna 2005, p. 2206: “si tratta di altari riservati alle libazioni, abbastanza sviluppati in alte (...)
25Both the setup of this terracotta object as well as its architectural mouldings are reminiscent of (cylindrical) altars, large incense burners (thymiateria), and putealia.14 Direct parallels in stone and terracotta were found in Etruscan sanctuaries in Bolsena, Bagnoregio, and Orvieto (Santuario del Belvedere).15
Fig. 10. From stone to terracotta: the terracotta libation altar (La5) on top of the pit SU 023 (OFP 2017-2019/ A. Gering – S. Menge 2022).
Fig. 11. Building phase 5 of the Libation Area: the terracotta libation altar (La5) in relation to the earlier structures of the Libation Area (A. Gering – S. Menge 2019-2023).
Fig. 12. Building phase 6 of the Libation Area: the raised level of pit SU 023 and its ritual closing above cavity C3 (A. Gering 2019-2023).
26The pit SU 023 remained in use even after the removal of the terracotta object La5, up to the level of 2.14 m ASL. The TFR-Sanctuary was, however, gradually abandoned in between AD 119 and 130 due to the construction of the Hadrianic Forum porticoes. During this process, the pit was filled and closed-off with mortar, various pottery fragments, including a completely preserved lid, and a small stone slab ritually sealing the opening to the cavity (fig. 12: SU 023*).
27After the closing of the pit SU 023, the entire Libation Area was sealed with a solid layer of grey mortar (SU 001c), raising the level from 2.14 m to 2.22 m ASL.
- 16 The abandonment of the sanctuary is a complex process which took place in the course of the Hadrian (...)
- 17 This phenomenon will be discussed in a forthcoming article by the authors in the proceedings of the (...)
28Through this stratum, a smaller pit was dug, most probably serving as a conduit to the libation structures buried below (fig. 14-15: SU 024, 12-14 cm diameter). The small opening was lined with tile and pottery fragments and was possibly used to pour liquid offerings in the final period of the sanctuary, before the altar area (TFR2) and the entire TFR-Sanctuary were abandoned.16 In contrast to all other conduits, the opening of this particular conduit was never closed-off and might have remained in use for an indefinite period, even after the sanctuary’s structures had been dismantled.17
Fig. 13. Building phase 7 of the Libation Area: the raised level of pit SU 024 and its relation to the earlier structures of the Libation Area (A. Gering 2019-2023).
Fig. 14. Building phase 7 of the Libation Area: section of the pit SU 024 and of the strata below (upper portion) (OFP / A. Gering 2022).
Fig. 15. Building phase 7 of the Libation Area: section of pit SU 024. Discolouration of the soil during excavation (lower portion) (S. Menge – A. Gering 2023).
29When the Republican stone structures in the Libation Area were buried (see above, building phase 4-5), several objects were ritually deposited within the fill (fig. 5: 1-6). In this fill, three assemblages were found: SU 050 and SU 027 (fig. 11), and a third assemblage (SU 2037) which was found during the 2023-campaign and will only be mentioned briefly. In addition, a nearby deposit of an inscribed bowl and a cup will be discussed shortly (SU 750).
30The assemblages are comprised mainly of defunctionalized pottery (in particular black gloss bowls and lamps), charcoal, and a single animal bone, buried in different spots in between the libation altars and in various successive steps of the fill. Through the analysis of these assemblages, several expiatory rituals can be observed in relation to the obliteration of these earlier stone libation altars.
- 18 Borgia 1998, p. 281, 284, 306; Pavolini 1981, p. 144-149.
31The lowest situated assemblage (SU 050) consisted of several objects deposited in between and on the tufa blocks U3a and U3b, which framed the lowest libation altar (fig. 2: U2). The assemblage consisted of two lamps, a strainer, and the base of a bowl (fig. 5). These four objects were deposited before and during the process of filling the bottom of the cavity and shall be discussed in detail: in between the tufa blocks, one of the lamps was found, defunctionalized intentionally by damaging the object with a sharp tool (fig. 4: 2; fig. 5: 2; fig. 16). It is a black gloss Tevere 2 type, belonging to the Biconical Esquiline types, produced in between the mid-2nd century BC and the mid-1st century BC.18 As the lamp exhibits no traces of burning, it was unused and probably offered as a votive gift.
Fig. 16. Cavity 3: the tufa blocks U3a and U3b at their first discovery (A. Gering 2019).
32On top of the tufa block U3a, the fragments of a second black gloss lamp (fig. 4: 1; fig. 5: 1) and of a grey ware strainer were found (fig. 5: 5). The lamp can be characterised as a Stablampe, also known as a pedestal lamp, a lamp on a high stand. Most of the lamp’s parts were missing: only the lamp’s small body with a short section of the stand were deposited in the cavity. It is very likely that the lamp was, as the other objects buried in the cavity, defunctionalized by breaking it on purpose. The preserved parts do not exhibit any traces of burning, it is thus probable that it has not been in use before being buried in the Libation Area.
- 19 The strainer is an Iberic production from the Catalan coast, exhibiting direct parallels both in fa (...)
33The grey ware strainer, on the other hand, was almost completely preserved and could be restored for the most part; the missing part can be attributed to a ritual defunctionalisation of the strainer. The object was damaged on purpose with a sharp tool before it was thrown onto the tufa block U3a, where it broke into several fragments (fig. 4: 5a-c).19
- 20 About gutti, Varro wrote: “Qui vinum dabant ut minutatim funderent, a guttis guttum appellarunt; qu (...)
34The function of the strainer could be interpreted in two ways: most probably, the vessel was intended as a wine strainer, separating the solid particles in the wine (spices, etc.) from the liquid. In the context of the Libation Area, it is possible that it was used to create a specific effect, i.e. the liquid spilling out in droplets. The act of dispensing liquids in small amounts or even droplets is an effect commonly used in libation rites and created by using vessels with narrow necks, such as gutti, askoi, sieves, and generally jugs or pitchers with narrow necks.20
- 21 Morel base 321c 4: 6.2 cm diameter, light brown fabric (7.5YR 6/4). 2017_208, old Ostia inventory n (...)
- 22 In contrast to the upside-down turned black gloss bowls which were part of many ritual deposits in (...)
35In between the tufa block U3a and the smaller stones U3c/d, close to the main altar’s drain, a black gloss bowl was laid (fig. 4: 3; fig. 5: 3; fig. 14).21 Only the bowl’s base and a small part of the curved walls are preserved. It too was damaged on purpose with a sharp tool; one of the points of impact is evident on one of the broken sides. The object was placed almost exactly above the buried opening to the lowest cavity and is thus related directly to the closing of that opening.22
- 23 In the lower fill of the cavity, one of the smaller black gloss fragments found there bears an insc (...)
- 24 The specific types of the objects are a Morel 2522a2 bowl dated to ca. 250-190 BC (G. Olcese, C. Co (...)
36After these pottery objects were deposited in the lower part of the Libation Area, most of it was filled with soil and highly fragmented “sacred rubbish”; mainly small pieces of animal bones, charcoal, and pottery (fragments of black gloss vessels, cooking ware vessels, common ware jugs, and of a few thin-walled ware cups).23 In addition, during the 2023-excavation campaign, another small assemblage of a small half-cut black gloss bowl and a black gloss lamp marked with an “X” were found in the fill of the Libation Area.24
- 25 This small altar has been presented in section 2 and is discussed further in the conclusion of this (...)
37In the upper part of the fill of cavity C3, an assemblage consisting of a half-cut bowl, the handle of a jug, the handle of a wine amphora, the base of a coarse ware vessel, and half of a leg bone was deposited (SU 027). This assemblage was found with the half-cut bowl and the coarse ware base facing the ground. As this small deposit was found right above the tufa block U3b, it could be considered a piaculum for that structure.25
- 26 Even though Ostia is considered a Latin city, the cults that involved libation had a strong Helleni (...)
- 27 The other option (a chronological order) is a less desirable method, as of some of the structures h (...)
38The comparison of the structures presented above with other sites is key to understanding the function of the Libation Area in the TFR-Sanctuary. The comparisons presented in the following stem from Etruscan and Magna Grecian sites, as those exhibit the closest parallels to the Libation Area in the TFR-Sanctuary.26 Each of the sites will be presented briefly, sorted topographically; from the shortest to the longest distance from Ostia.27
- 28 A more detailed discussion of the issue with interpreting such structures will be presented in Meng (...)
39The main characteristics taken into account for choosing appropriate sites for comparison were a) similarities in layout and construction and b) particularly the size of the opening, as openings larger than 30-40 cm are more prone to indicate wells or structures destinated for solid offerings instead of libations.28 To reiterate, the openings of the various stone building phases of the libation altar in the TFR-Sanctuary vary from circa 16 to 27 cm.
- 29 Stefani 1953, p. 40.
- 30 Colonna 2002, p. 142; Stefani 1953, p. 43.
- 31 Stefani 1953, p. 43.
- 32 Stefani 1953, p. 43, fig. 20.
40The sanctuary of Portonaccio in Veii houses one of the most important comparanda for the altar in the area TFR2; the main altar with a central fire pit (“fossa dei sacrifici”)29 and the adjoining libation altar (the so-called bóthros)30 built in between the mid-5th to mid-4th century BC. The bóthros consists of four tufa blocks on top of one another, creating a conduit into a subterranean cavity through a central hole in each of the blocks. The uppermost block protrudes a few centimetres above the pavement surrounding the altar and used to be topped by a small pyramidal block with a smaller opening on one of its sides.31 Nowadays, the smaller pyramidal block is missing and the large central opening of the uppermost tufa blocks is visible, identical to the diameter of the holes of the lower blocks.32 Deduced from the old plans, the original, smaller opening seems to have measured around 10 cm, while the larger opening measures circa 25 cm.
41The libation altar in Veii is located in direct vicinity of the large fire altar and is believed to have facilitated the blood collected from the sacrificial animal to disperse into the subsoil to be received by the deities of the underworld.33 Certainly, other liquid offerings, such as wine, milk, honey, oil etc. could have been poured into the opening, as well.
42This specific installation for libations is thus not only positioned similarly to the libation altar in the area TFR2, alas directly next to the main altar, but also functionally and topographically a close parallel. Structurally, it is similar to the earlier building phases of the libation altar in the TFR-Sanctuary which were too built in stone.
- 34 Colonna 2005, p. 223-228, tav. II. XX.a.
43In the northern sanctuary in Pyrgi (Caere), a small precinct, the so-called Area C, included a circular libation altar with a central opening above a deep pit. It is associated with chthonic deities, most probably Tinia (the Etruscan Jupiter/Hades) and/or Uni-Astarte (Hera), who was worshipped in the adjoining Temple B. According to G. Colonna, it was used as a bóthros for libations but particularly to receive the sacrificial blood before the animal was butchered and parts were burned on the adjoining altar.34
- 35 Fiorini 2005, p. 148, 150-154.
44In Gravisca, the harbour city of Tarquinia, a cult building (edificio beta) associated with the worship of Demeter shows a similar setup of an altar, a “ritual pozzo” which looks quite similar to the layout of the first libation hole phase: a square stone slab with a central hole above a very narrow cavity dug into the ground.35 The ritual pozzo in Gravisca is believed to, as the denomination insinuates, have had a ritual function. A more detailed interpretation was not provided.
45Even though the altar is in this case inside of a cult building, the setup of this sacred space dating to the 5th century BC shows apparent similarities to the area TFR2.
46Another feature similar to the Libation Area in the TFR-Sanctuary is a stone block with a central indent (“base 16 beta”). It is comparable to the abovementioned small tufa ara U3b with its central concave indent located next to the libation altar in the area TFR2.
- 36 Bonamici 2005; 2013; Bonamici – Rosselli – Taccola 2017.
- 37 Bonamici – Rosselli – Taccola 2017, p. 29.
- 38 Bonamici 2003, p. 529, tav. XXXV.1. 2; 2013, p. 38, fig. 2.
- 39 Bonamici 2013, p. 37.
- 40 Bonamici 2013, p. 39, fig. 6.
47The sanctuary on the acropolis of Volterra incorporates many of the cultic aspects found in the TFR-Sanctuary, a lot of which are associated with chthonic deities, including an installation for libations and many other structures facilitating the placement of offerings “into the ground”. The main deities venerated in the Acropolis-sanctuary are the grandfather and mother deities (p)apa and χia (Tempio B), the Zeus-equivalent Tinia (Tempio A), and Demeter (small temple).36 Additionally, there were dedications to Hercules as well as Pan and the Nymphs. An installation associated with liquid offerings is found in the “recinto I”, where from the end of the 3rd century BC onwards, “cult and devotional activities took place in honour of Demeter”,37 a square votive pit with a terracotta tube set into the ground was found. This setup certainly differs from the Libation Area in the TFR-Sanctuary, the general idea is the same, though: dispersing liquid into the soil, and thus reaching the deities inhabiting the underworld.38 According to M. Bonamici, the correlation of remains of figs and grapes found in the bottom of the tube and two ritual fruit presses in the area suggest fruit juice being created to be used as libations.39 Further similar installations were found in the sanctuary, such as ceramic vessels of which the base was cut-off before setting them into the ground, in this way creating a conduit, i.e. in the “recinto III”, where a bottomless vessel was set into the ground, marked by stone slabs.40
48Unfortunately, none of the publications state the measurements for any of these installations and the plans and photos do not include scales, so the diameters of the openings could merely be roughly estimated (see tab. 2).
49In Pontecagnano near Salerno, two sanctuaries with distinctive chthonic cults were discovered. The “northern sanctuary” (località Pastini) is a suburban sanctuary dedicated to Demeter, while the “southern sanctuary” is an intraurban sanctuary dedicated to the Greek Apollon and the Etruscan deity Manth.
- 41 Bailo Modesti et al. 2005, p. 585 Tav. V.a. c.
- 42 Bailo Modesti et al. 2005, p. 583.
50The structures of the Demeter sanctuary which were found so far are mostly connected to the restructuring of the precinct in the 4th century BC, but traces of older cultic activities were found, as well: already in the Archaic period, there were several installations facilitating the access to the underworld, for instance terracotta tubes, the rims of pithoi as well as the upper half of large ollae, submerged into the ground.41 These installations were all found empty; the terracotta tubes were most probably used for libations while the larger openings of the large-scale pottery vessels are, according to A. Battista, thought to be points of dialogue with the underworld.42
- 43 Bailo Modesti et al. 2005, p. 579.
- 44 Bailo Modesti et al. 2005, p. 580.
51The intraurban sanctuary is dedicated to Apollon and the Etruscan god Manth, the latter of whom exhibits similar characteristics as Dis Pater but also incorporates aspects of the chthonic Apollon. The precinct was restructured in the 4th century BC, as was the Demeter sanctuary,43 which, in addition, also encompassed an open ritual space for libations and the deposition of sacrificial offers, three terracotta pozzetti for libations.44
- 45 Sposito 2008, p. 231, fig. 26.
52The sanctuary of the chthonic deities at the agorà of Morgantina (Sicily) mainly houses the cult of Demeter and Kore (Persephone), including several altars with different functions, i.e. including a small rectangular block with a central hole above a bóthros which looks quite similar to the early phases of the libation hole in the area TFR2.45 It is located in one of the exedras, unfortunately it was so far not possible to find further information on its content.
- 46 Sabbione – Macrì 2008, p. 195.
- 47 Macrì 2014, p. 73-75.
- 48 Macrì 2014, p. 72.
53The Thesmophorion of Locrì Epizefiri (Calabria) consists of multiple cult buildings and altars, built in various phases of the sanctuary, starting in the 6th century BC, but with a concentration of evidence in the latest phase of the sanctuary in between the 4th century and the end of the 3rd century BC.46 In this paper, only the “Edificio E” with the “altare con tubi” will be treated, as this particular altar’s function is directly connected to libation rites. The rectangular altar was built around the end of the 4th century to the beginning of the 3rd century BC and consists of the lower part of a louterion and three terracotta tubes (made of two imbrices each), stuck into a rectangular earthen structure reinforced by tegulae.47 According to M. Macrì, these tubes were utilised as conduits for libations.48 Even though the setup of the libation altar in the TFR2-sanctuary is different, the use of cylindrical terracotta objects as conduits for libations is paralleled in the area TFR2 with the cylindrical terracotta altar employed in phase 5.
- 49 Mastronuzzi – Ciuchini 2011, p. 687, fig. 9. See also Mastronuzzi 2005.
- 50 Mastronuzzi – Ciuchini 2011, p. 681-697.
- 51 Mastronuzzi – Ciuchini 2011, p. 685, fig. 7, 697. 696, plate 4. For a photo with scale, see Mastron (...)
- 52 Mastronuzzi – Ciuchini 2011, p. 697; Mastronuzzi 2005, p. 147.
54In the sacred area discovered at Piazza Dante in Vaste (Puglia), a female fertility deity with the probable name of Oxxo (similar to Demeter) was venerated.49 The most striking elements of the sanctuary are the three subterranean caves (two smaller cavities and one large cave) in which a variety of ritual activities had taken place.50 These rites also included libations; in the largest cave (“pit 3”), an altar consisting of a stone slab with a central hole was found.51 The latter shows striking similarities to the earliest phases of the libation hole in the area TFR2 and is interpreted as a structure meant for liquid offerings. The central hole in the altar stone measures an estimated 15 cm, which is equal to the half-round cut-out of the earliest libation altar blocks in the area TFR2 (U1 and U2). The sanctuary was founded in between the late 4th century BC and the first half of the 3rd century BC and continued to be used after the Roman conquest of Messapia.52
Tab. 2. Libation altars in other sanctuaries: comparanda.
| Site |
Cults |
Context |
Type of Altar |
Diameter of the Opening |
Interpretation in the Publications |
Date of Construction suggested in the Publications |
| Veii, Portonaccio sanctuary(Etruria / Latium) |
Apollon/Rath, Hercules, Menerva, Turan/Aphrodite, Aritimi/Artemis, Venai/water nymphs |
Libation altar immediately north of the main fire altar. |
Four tufa blocks on top of one another creating a conduit into a subterranean cavity through a central hole in each of the blocks. The uppermost block protrudes a few centimetres above the pavement surrounding the altar and used to be topped by a small pyramidal block. |
Original small opening in the pyramidal block: ca. 10 cm.
Opening of the tufa blocks: ca. 25 cm. |
Bóthros for sacrificial blood to disperse into the subsoil to be received by the deities of the underworld. |
(6th) / 5th-4th century BC |
| Pyrgi, Northern Sanctuary (Etruria / Latium) |
Chthonic deities, possibly Uni-Astarte and/or Tinia |
A small libation altar in the Area C, located near the Temple B. |
A small circular altar (35-40 cm diameter) with a small central opening above a 2 m deep cavity, surrounded by rectangular slabs. |
15-18 cm. |
Round altar with a bóthros for libations and sacrificial blood. |
6th century BC |
| Volterra, Acropolis-sanctuary (Etruria / Tuscany) |
(p)apa and χia (Tempio B), Tinia/Zeus, Demeter |
Two installations for libations and other offerings in the “recinti” I and III, two small open-air precincts, where cult activities were carried out. |
Terracotta tube in a square pit (in “recinto I”) and bottomless ceramic vessel bordered by stone slabs (in “recinto III”). |
It cannot be inferred based on the publications.
Both estimated by the author to around ca. 30 cm. |
Tube in Recinto I: votive pit with a terracotta conduct for libations.
Vessel in “recinto III”: a vessel without its base, set into the ground to create sort of a well to ensure the permanent connection with the deities underground. |
2nd half of 3rd century BC |
| Pontecagnano, Intraurban / Southern Sanctuary |
Apollon, Manth |
Open ritual space for libations and the deposition of sacrificial offers. |
Three small terracotta containers submerged in the ground with a narrow opening dug into the soil, one of which is lined with a terracotta element. |
Not evident in the publications. Openings described as “narrow”. |
Libations. |
4th century BC |
| Pontecagnano, Extraurban / Northern Sanctuary |
Demeter |
Open ritual space with several installations for libations and access to the underworld. |
Terracotta tubes, rims of large ceramic vessels, upper half of large ceramic vessels, all of which were submerged into the ground. Found empty. |
Not evident in the publications, but the diameters of the different installations most probably varied immensely: the diameter of a pithos is certainly larger than that of the terracotta tubes. |
The terracotta tubes were most probably used for libations. The large-scale pottery vessels are suggested to be points of dialogue with the underworld. |
Archaic-Late Archaic |
| Gravisca, Greek Sanctuary, Edificio beta (Etruria, Latium) |
Demeter |
Cult building which, in its centre, is equipped with a small altar with a central hole. |
Rectangular, massive stone slab with a central opening above a narrow cavity. |
Not mentioned in the publication, measured from the plan: ca. 30 cm. |
Ritual pozzo for ritual activities. |
|
| Morgantina, Demeter and Kore sanctuary (Sicily) |
Demeter, Kore |
Exedra with a small libation altar. |
Rectangular stone block with an oval opening in its centre above a small cavity. |
? |
Small bóthros for libations. |
? |
| Thesmophorion of Locrì Epizefiri (Magna Grecia, Calabria) |
Demeter, Persephone |
The libation altar is situated in Edificio E: a small sacellum |
Rectangular earthen architecture altar, reinforced by tegulae, with three terracotta tubes (created by two imbrices) as conduits for libations stuck into the earthen altar. |
Not mentioned in the publication, estimated/measured from a photo with scale: ca. 25 cm. |
Libations. |
End of 4th century-beginning of 3rd century BC |
| Vaste, Sacred area of Piazza Dante (Apulia) |
Oxxo/Demeter |
Subterranean cave with small altar with a central hole. |
Rectangular stone slab with a small central opening. |
Not mentioned in the publication, estimated/measured from a photo with scale: ca. 15 cm. |
Small altar for religious rituals. |
Late 4th century / 1st half of 3rd century BC |
55After presenting the key elements of the Libation Area in their respective building phase(s) and comparing them to similar structures in other sanctuaries, at this point, it should be reiterated why and how these structures could be indeed interpreted as libation altars.
56Considering the position (next to the large fire altar) and the layout of the structures (a subterranean cavity with a framed opening), their only other conceivable functions might be a) related to sewage or drainage or b) a chthonic altar for solid offerings. A function related to sewage or drainage is, however, highly implausible, as there is a proper sewer at the northern end of the fire altar’s ramp and drain. This sewer is, in contrast to the subterranean cavity of the so-called Libation Area, connected directly to the sewage system of the city, in particular to the Cardo-sewer. Also, the second possibility, an altar for solid offerings, is not verifiable, as a proof of solid offerings is missing. Moreover, the opening of the structures would seem too small for most solid offerings (elaborated below).
57In addition, there are several strong indicators supporting the theory of a libation altar:
- The similarity of the structures to several of the comparanda discussed in this article, in particular Veii and Pyrgi for the stone structures and Orvieto, Bagnoregio, and Bolsena for the raised altar in terracotta (discussed in section 2, building phase 5).
- The diameter of the opening: parallel to libation altars from other sanctuaries, the opening of the altars in the TFR-Sanctuary varies in between 16 and 27 cm, while altars for solid offerings tend to exhibit a larger opening.
- The dark purple discolouration of the soil in the Libation Area, apparently caused by influx of liquids, possibly sacrificial blood, milk, honey, oil, or wine and their fermentation in the closed-off cavity over the course of the centuries.
- The ritual closing of the latest openings to the Libation Area with stones, tiles, and pottery (see section 2, building phase 7) as well as the deposition of defunctionalized objects in the cavity. A profane structure would not have been treated in this manner.
- 53 Similar rites were also performed in necropolis as the deceased were part of the underworld. For co (...)
58In contrast to the common depictions of libations poured from a bowl or patera into the altar fire, the act of letting the liquid permeate the soil is specifically connected to chthonic deities.53 As presented in section 4, structures which function as a conduit into the soil are most commonly found in relation to such chthonic cults and can be set up in different ways: some libation altars exhibit openings in the ground or are even situated slightly lower than the ground level or in underground facilities, while others exhibit conduits which are raised in comparison to the ground level. These libation altars consist either of stone structures with a central hole or of other stone or terracotta elements, such as tubes, pozzetti, or pottery vessels with their base cut off.
- 54 Colonna 2005, p. 2206: “Tutti e cinque gli esemplari pubblicati recano una dedica in etrusco, quell (...)
59In the area TFR2, all of the abovementioned layouts of libation altars are represented in various building phases of the altar: in the Republican phases, the stone libation altars were situated on an equal or slightly lower level than the walking level, placing them in a small, artificial depression. From the mid-1st century BC onwards (phase 5), these structures were replaced by a cylindrical terracotta altar, which, in contrast to the predecessor stone altars, was not “hidden” in a depression, but instead “towered” over the libation pit. Even though the terracotta altar was raised above the ground, it does not necessarily indicate a change in venerated deity, as very similar altars from Etruscan sites dedicated to chthonic deities demonstrate.54
60Libations were an essential part of Roman (and pre-Roman) rituals: in the process of animal sacrifice as well as other rituals, liquid offerings were, for instance, a common action to end the ceremony. Consequently, they play an important role in Roman sanctuaries. To summarise: in the area TFR2, libation rites are traceable in association with a structure located east of the large fire altar A1(bc): the area of the libation altars (La), which consisted of a subterranean cavity with an opening facilitating the act of pouring of liquid into that cavity. This infrastructure was most certainly used in association with animal sacrifice, as the Libation Area is positioned directly next to the drain which is related to the bloody sacrifice.
- 55 A more detailed discussion of the fire altar’s functionality is published in Gering – Menge – Peder (...)
- 56 It is probable that earlier building phases were equipped with a similar outlet, as well, but as th (...)
61The head of the sacrificial animal could be held above the fire altar’s drain (D) so that when its throat was cut, the blood would be led from the drain directly into the adjoining sewer (S).55 In a vessel, part of the sacrificial blood could be collected and poured into the libation altar situated directly next to the drain. Additionally, from the mid-1st century BC onwards (building phase 5), the lower end of the drain was equipped with a small outlet on its eastern side which led blood from the drain into the Libation Area (fig. 4).56
- 57 Renger – Haase 2022. In phases 2 and 3, a small tufa ara with a slight central concave indent in it (...)
62Sacrificial blood was most probably not the only liquid that was poured into the opening: other offerings could have included liquids such as wine, milk, honey, or oil. The dark purple discolouration of the soil through the constant influx of organic liquids is visible throughout all phases of the altar area. Apart from communal ceremonies, the libation altar was very likely also used for individual offerings, as it provided “the opportunity to express a wish or appreciation at any given time, without requiring a large number of specialists or a great deal of equipment or materials, and they did not necessarily need to be part of a complicated series of actions.”57
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