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———. ‘Rhetoric and the Political Theory of Ideologies’. Political Studies 60, no. 4 (1 December 2012): 751–67. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.2012.00948.x
Golec de Zavala, Agnieszka, Rita Guerra, and Cláudia Simão. ‘The Relationship between the Brexit Vote and Individual Predictors of Prejudice: Collective Narcissism, Right Wing Authoritarianism, Social Dominance Orientation’. Frontiers in Psychology 8 (2017). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02023
Goodhart, David. The Road to Somewhere: The Populist Revolt and the Future of Politics. London: Hurst & Company, 2017.
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Herrick, James A. ‘Contemporary Rhetoric II: Situation, Story, Display’. In The History and Theory of Rhetoric, 6th ed. Routledge, 2017.
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Hubbard, Philip. ‘Suella Braverman’s Talk of a Refugee “invasion” Is a Dangerous Political Gambit Gone Wrong’. The Conversation, 2 November 2022. http://theconversation.com/suella-bravermans-talk-of-a-refugee-invasion-is-a-dangerous-political-gambit-gone-wrong-193638
Hyde, Marina. ‘Suella Braverman Aboard a Chinook: Proof That in Politics, Standards Can Always Get Worse’. The Guardian, 4 November 2022, sec. Opinion. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2022/nov/04/suella-braverman-chinook-home-secretary-priti-patel
Kelly, Kieran. ‘Fifteen Arrests after Police van Set on Fire in “violent Protest” Outside Asylum Seeker Hotel in Merseyside’. LBC. Accessed 8 March 2023. https://www.lbc.co.uk/news/demonstration-by-far-right-protesters-turns-into-riot-outside-merseyside-asylum/
Knupfer, Helena, and Jörg Matthes. ‘An Attack against Us All? Perceived Similarity and Compassion for the Victims Mediate the Effects of News Coverage about Right-Wing Terrorism’. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 0, no. 0 (1 June 2021): 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2021.1923623
Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. Philosophy In The Flesh. Basic Books, 1999.
Martin, James. ‘Rhetoric, Death, and the Politics of Memory’. Critical Discourse Studies 0, no. 0 (22 June 2022): 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405904.2022.2090977
———. ‘Situating Speech: A Rhetorical Approach to Political Strategy’. Political Studies 63, no. 1 (March 2015): 25–42. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9248.12039
Mudde, Cas, and Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser. Populism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017.
Nationality and Borders Act 2022, Pub. L. No. c. 36, § 16 (2022).
Patel, Priti. ‘Speech at Conservative Party Conference’. Presented at the Conservative Party Conference, Online, 4 October 2020. https://www.ukpol.co.uk/priti-patel-2020-speech-at-conservative-party-conference/
‘Policing Bill: Britons Support Proposed New Police Protest Powers | YouGov’. Accessed 11 April 2023. https://yougov.co.uk/topics/politics/articles-reports/2022/03/16/policing-bill-britons-support-proposed-new-police-
Roe-Crines, Andrew, and Tim Heppell. ‘Legitimising Euroscepticism? The Construction, Delivery and Significance of the Bruges Speech’. Contemporary British History 34, no. 2 (2 April 2020): 204–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/13619462.2019.1669019
‘Shortage of Safe and Legal Routes’ for Migrants, Suella Braverman Told by Tory MP, 2022. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Nhl87CLU70
Sobolewska, Maria, and Robert Ford. ‘British Culture Wars? Brexit and the Future Politics of Immigration and Ethnic Diversity’. The Political Quarterly 90, no. S2 (2019): 142–54. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-923X.12646
———, eds. ‘Divided Over Diversity: Identity Conservatives And Identity Liberals’. In Brexitland, 57–84. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108562485.003
‘Stop and Search: How Do Ethnic Minority Britons Feel about Police Powers? | YouGov’. Accessed 14 April 2023. https://yougov.co.uk/topics/politics/articles-reports/2022/04/29/stop-and-search-how-do-ethnic-minority-britons-fee
‘The Government Has Agreed a Deal Where Some People Who Have Entered Britain to Apply for Asylum Will Be Flown to Rwanda, in Africa, for Their Asylum Applications to Be Processed. If Their Application Is Successful, They Would Be Granted Asylum in Rwanda, and Would Not Be Entitled to Return to Britain. Do You Support or Oppose This Proposal? | Daily Question’. Accessed 20 April 2023. https://yougov.co.uk/topics/politics/survey-results/daily/2022/10/31/3c056/2
‘This Morning Climate Protesters Attempted to Stage a Demonstration by Standing on Top of a Tube Train in Canning Town, but Were Dragged off the Top of the Train by Commuters. Do Your Sympathies Lie More With…? | Daily Question’. Accessed 12 April 2023. https://yougov.co.uk/topics/science/survey-results/daily/2019/10/17/e5c22/2
‘Three Weeks into Motorway Climate Change Protests, Public Opposition Has Only Grown | YouGov’. Accessed 11 April 2023. https://yougov.co.uk/topics/politics/articles-reports/2021/10/08/three-weeks-motorway-climate-change-protests-publi
Townsend, Mark. ‘Lawyers Claim Knife Attack at Law Firm Was Inspired by Priti Patel’s Rhetoric’. The Observer, 10 October 2020, sec. Politics. https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2020/oct/10/lawyers-claim-knife-attack-at-law-firm-was-inspired-by-priti-patels-rhetoric
Toye, Richard. Rhetoric: A Very Short Introduction. 1st ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.
Tufail, Waqas. ‘Rotherham, Rochdale, and the Racialised Threat of the “Muslim Grooming Gang”’. International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy 4, no. 3 (January 2015): 30–43. https://www.crimejusticejournal.com/article/view/766
Webber, Frances. ‘Britain’s Authoritarian Turn’. Race & Class 62, no. 4 (1 April 2021): 106–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306396821989181
———. ‘On the Creation of the UK’s “Hostile Environment”’. Race & Class 60, no. 4 (1 April 2019): 76–87. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306396819825788
Zedner, Lucia. ‘Outsourcing the Border Within: Private Citizens as Border Guards, State Sovereignty, and Civil Peace’. In Privatising Border Control: Law at the Limits of the Sovereign State, edited by Mary Bosworth and Lucia Zedner. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192857163.003.0012
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Notes
MPs Jesse Norman and Nick Thomas-Symonds both used the term “empty rhetoric” to describe the Conservative Government’s communications strategy, the former referring to Boris Johnson and the latter to Priti Patel. Commentator James Melville described Patel’s immigration promises as “hot air and rhetoric”, while journalist Marina Hyde described Braverman’s strategy as “poses/vibes/moods” and as having “achieved less than nothing”. Such descriptions dismiss rhetoric as insincerity, but the rhetoric itself is worthy of deeper consideration.
David Goodhart, The Road to Somewhere: The Populist Revolt and the Future of Politics (London: Hurst & Company, 2017); Maria Sobolewska and Robert Ford, ‘British Culture Wars? Brexit and the Future Politics of Immigration and Ethnic Diversity’, The Political Quarterly 90, no. S2 (2019): 142–54, https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-923X.12646
Goodhart, The Road to Somewhere, 21.
Sobolewska and Ford, ‘British Culture Wars?’, 147.
Frances Webber, ‘Britain’s Authoritarian Turn’, Race & Class 62, no. 4 (1 April 2021): 106–20, https://doi.org/10.1177/0306396821989181 ; Agnieszka Golec de Zavala, Rita Guerra, and Cláudia Simão, ‘The Relationship between the Brexit Vote and Individual Predictors of Prejudice: Collective Narcissism, Right Wing Authoritarianism, Social Dominance Orientation’, Frontiers in Psychology 8 (2017), https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02023
Sobolewska and Ford, ‘British Culture Wars?’
Alan Finlayson, ‘From Beliefs to Arguments: Interpretive Methodology and Rhetorical Political Analysis’, The British Journal of Politics and International Relations 9, no. 4 (1 November 2007): 546, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-856x.2007.00269.x
Finlayson, ‘From Beliefs to Arguments’.
James A. Herrick, ‘Contemporary Rhetoric II: Situation, Story, Display’, in The History and Theory of Rhetoric, 6th ed. (Routledge, 2017); James Martin, ‘Situating Speech: A Rhetorical Approach to Political Strategy’, Political Studies 63, no. 1 (March 2015): 25–42, https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9248.12039
James Martin, ‘Rhetoric, Death, and the Politics of Memory’, Critical Discourse Studies 0, no. 0 (22 June 2022): 6, https://doi.org/10.1080/17405904.2022.2090977 ; Richard Toye, Rhetoric: A Very Short Introduction, 1st ed, Very Short Introductions 346 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 32.
Alan Finlayson, ‘Rhetoric and the Political Theory of Ideologies’, Political Studies 60, no. 4 (1 December 2012): 751–67, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.2012.00948.x
Finlayson, ‘From Beliefs to Arguments’.
Lucia Zedner, ‘Outsourcing the Border Within: Private Citizens as Border Guards, State Sovereignty, and Civil Peace’, in Privatising Border Control: Law at the Limits of the Sovereign State, ed. Mary Bosworth and Lucia Zedner (Oxford University Press, 2022), 0, https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192857163.003.0012 ; Frances Webber, ‘On the Creation of the UK’s “Hostile Environment”’, Race & Class 60, no. 4 (1 April 2019): 76–87, https://doi.org/10.1177/0306396819825788
Sobolewska and Ford, ‘British Culture Wars?’
Eleni Andreouli and Parisa Dashtipour, ‘British Citizenship and the “Other”: An Analysis of the Earned Citizenship Discourse’, Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology 24, no. 2 (2014): 100–110, https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.2154
Judi Atkins, ‘Rhetoric and Audience Reception: An Analysis of Theresa May’s Vision of Britain and Britishness after Brexit’, Politics, 12 March 2021, 0263395721991411, https://doi.org/10.1177/0263395721991411
Andrew Roe-Crines and Tim Heppell, ‘Legitimising Euroscepticism? The Construction, Delivery and Significance of the Bruges Speech’, Contemporary British History 34, no. 2 (2 April 2020): 9, https://doi.org/10.1080/13619462.2019.1669019
These narratives of scarcity were harnessed during the Brexit campaigns, particularly by populist figures like Nigel Farage, whose arguments were often constructed around the lump of labour fallacy, unemployment and low wages—see Crines and Heppell (2017).
Isaac Chotiner, ‘From Little Englanders to Brexiteers’, The New Yorker, 11 November 2019, https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2019/11/18/from-little-englanders-to-brexiteers
Atkins, ‘Rhetoric and Audience Reception’.
Martin, ‘Rhetoric, Death, and the Politics of Memory’, 6.
Martin, 6.
This narrative was familiar in the context of the speeches, having already been successfully exploited by Nigel Farage and other high-profile proponents of anti-immigrant discourse such as Tommy Robinson or former BNP leader Nick Griffin.
Priti Patel, ‘Speech at Conservative Party Conference’ (Conservative Party Conference, Online, 4 October 2020), https://www.ukpol.co.uk/priti-patel-2020-speech-at-conservative-party-conference/
Philip Hubbard, ‘Suella Braverman’s Talk of a Refugee “invasion” Is a Dangerous Political Gambit Gone Wrong’, The Conversation, 2 November 2022, http://theconversation.com/suella-bravermans-talk-of-a-refugee-invasion-is-a-dangerous-political-gambit-gone-wrong-193638
Toye, Rhetoric, 32.
Goodhart, The Road to Somewhere, 75–76.
Atkins, ‘Rhetoric and Audience Reception’, 221; Patel, ‘Speech at Conservative Party Conference’.
Semiotically speaking it can also communicate/signify the relation between people and place, the jus soli and jus sanguinis arguments of belonging and citizenship anchored in British history (see Tabili, 2005).
Cas Mudde and Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser, Populism: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press, 2017), 9.
Patel, ‘Speech at Conservative Party Conference’.
Helena Knupfer and Jörg Matthes, ‘An Attack against Us All? Perceived Similarity and Compassion for the Victims Mediate the Effects of News Coverage about Right-Wing Terrorism’, Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 0, no. 0 (1 June 2021): 1–26, https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2021.1923623
Patel, ‘Speech at Conservative Party Conference’.
Patel.
Patel.
Goodhart, The Road to Somewhere, 43.
Patel, ‘Speech at Conservative Party Conference’.
George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Philosophy In The Flesh (Basic Books, 1999), 486–515.
Patel, ‘Speech at Conservative Party Conference’.
Atkins, ‘Rhetoric and Audience Reception’, 218; Paul A. Chilton, Analysing Political Discourse: Theory and Practice (London ; New York: Routledge, 2004), 111.
Patel, ‘Speech at Conservative Party Conference’.
Sobolewska and Ford, ‘British Culture Wars?’
Sobolewska and Ford.
Victoria Canning, ‘UK Immigration: Creating a Spectacle around People Seeking Asylum Generates Fear and Chaos, Not Solutions’, The Conversation, 11 November 2022, http://theconversation.com/uk-immigration-creating-a-spectacle-around-people-seeking-asylum-generates-fear-and-chaos-not-solutions-194229
Suella Braverman, ‘Speech to Conservative Party Conference’ (Conservative Party Conference, Birmingham, 4 October 2022), https://www.ukpol.co.uk/suella-braverman-2022-speech-to-conservative-party-conference/
Marina Hyde, ‘Suella Braverman Aboard a Chinook: Proof That in Politics, Standards Can Always Get Worse’, The Guardian, 4 November 2022, sec. Opinion, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2022/nov/04/suella-braverman-chinook-home-secretary-priti-patel
Toye, Rhetoric.
Braverman, ‘Speech to Conservative Party Conference’.
Braverman.
Toye, Rhetoric.
Braverman, ‘Speech to Conservative Party Conference’; Lakoff and Johnson, Philosophy In The Flesh. ; The “nation as a human body” metaphor is common in political communication, as demonstrated by Andreas Musolff (2017).
Waqas Tufail, ‘Rotherham, Rochdale, and the Racialised Threat of the “Muslim Grooming Gang”’, International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy 4, no. 3 (January 2015): 30–43, https://www.crimejusticejournal.com/article/view/766 ; Ella Cockbain and Waqas Tufail, ‘Failing Victims, Fuelling Hate: Challenging the Harms of the “Muslim Grooming Gangs” Narrative’, Race & Class 61, no. 3 (1 January 2020): 3–32, https://doi.org/10.1177/0306396819895727 ; Braverman, ‘Speech to Conservative Party Conference’.
Chilton, Analysing Political Discourse, 118.
Braverman, ‘Speech to Conservative Party Conference’.
Braverman.
Danny Dorling, Ben Stuart, and Joshua Stubbs, ‘Brexit, Inequality and the Demographic Divide’, British Politics and Policy at LSE (blog), 22 December 2016, https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/politicsandpolicy/brexit-inequality-and-the-demographic-divide/ ; Braverman, ‘Speech to Conservative Party Conference’.
Sobolewska and Ford, ‘British Culture Wars?’; Goodhart, The Road to Somewhere, 15.
Mark Townsend, ‘Lawyers Claim Knife Attack at Law Firm Was Inspired by Priti Patel’s Rhetoric’, The Observer, 10 October 2020, sec. Politics, https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2020/oct/10/lawyers-claim-knife-attack-at-law-firm-was-inspired-by-priti-patels-rhetoric
Kieran Kelly, ‘Fifteen Arrests after Police van Set on Fire in “violent Protest” Outside Asylum Seeker Hotel in Merseyside’, LBC, accessed 8 March 2023, https://www.lbc.co.uk/news/demonstration-by-far-right-protesters-turns-into-riot-outside-merseyside-asylum/
Knupfer and Matthes, ‘An Attack against Us All?’
Hyde, ‘Suella Braverman Aboard a Chinook’; Webber, ‘Britain’s Authoritarian Turn’.
Golec de Zavala, Guerra, and Simão, ‘The Relationship between the Brexit Vote and Individual Predictors of Prejudice’.
Golec de Zavala, Guerra, and Simão.
‘Public Order Bill: Factsheet’, GOV.UK, accessed 11 April 2023, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/public-order-bill-overarching-documents/public-order-bill-factsheet.
‘Public Order Bill’.
‘Public Order Bill: Equality Impact Assessment’, GOV.UK, accessed 11 April 2023, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/public-order-bill-overarching-documents/public-order-bill-equality-impact-assessment
‘Public Order Bill’; ‘By 51% to 42%, Londoners Don’t Trust the Metropolitan Police | YouGov’, accessed 14 April 2023, https://yougov.co.uk/topics/politics/articles-reports/2023/02/10/51-42-londoners-dont-trust-metropolitan-police ; ‘Stop and Search: How Do Ethnic Minority Britons Feel about Police Powers? | YouGov’, accessed 14 April 2023, https://yougov.co.uk/topics/politics/articles-reports/2022/04/29/stop-and-search-how-do-ethnic-minority-britons-fee
‘Public Order Bill’.
Home Office News Team, ‘Factsheet: Migration and Economic Development Partnership - Home Office in the Media’, Home Office in the Media (blog), accessed 15 March 2023, https://homeofficemedia.blog.gov.uk/2022/04/14/factsheet-migration-and-economic-development-partnership/
Home Office News Team.
‘Shortage of Safe and Legal Routes’ for Migrants, Suella Braverman Told by Tory MP, 2022, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Nhl87CLU70
Home Office News Team, ‘Factsheet: Migration and Economic Development Partnership - Home Office in the Media’.
A flaw in this argument is that it leaves no case in which a ‘legitimate’ asylum seeker could reach the UK. “Legal routes” are underdeveloped or inexistant, meaning that illegal routes are taken by necessity, and this allows for a value judgement to be taken based on legality and morality.
Home Office News Team, ‘Factsheet: Migration and Economic Development Partnership - Home Office in the Media’.
Patel, ‘Speech at Conservative Party Conference’.
‘Nationality and Borders Act 2022’, Pub. L. No. c. 36, § 16 (2022).
Maria Sobolewska and Robert Ford, eds., ‘Divided Over Diversity: Identity Conservatives And Identity Liberals’, in Brexitland (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020), 57–84, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108562485.003
‘Three Weeks into Motorway Climate Change Protests, Public Opposition Has Only Grown | YouGov’, accessed 11 April 2023, https://yougov.co.uk/topics/politics/articles-reports/2021/10/08/three-weeks-motorway-climate-change-protests-publi ; ‘Climate Change Protesters Have Been Carrying out Their Aim of Disrupting Roads and Public Transport, Aiming to “Shut down London” in Order to Bring Attention to Their Cause. Do You Support or Oppose These Actions? | Daily Question’, accessed 13 April 2023, https://yougov.co.uk/topics/science/survey-results/daily/2019/10/15/470b6/1
‘This Morning Climate Protesters Attempted to Stage a Demonstration by Standing on Top of a Tube Train in Canning Town, but Were Dragged off the Top of the Train by Commuters. Do Your Sympathies Lie More With…? | Daily Question’, accessed 12 April 2023, https://yougov.co.uk/topics/science/survey-results/daily/2019/10/17/e5c22/2
‘Britons Broadly Supportive of Public Order Bill’s Measures to Criminalise Certain Forms of Protest | YouGov’, accessed 11 April 2023, https://yougov.co.uk/topics/politics/articles-reports/2022/11/09/britons-broadly-supportive-public-order-bills-meas
‘Policing Bill: Britons Support Proposed New Police Protest Powers | YouGov’, accessed 11 April 2023, https://yougov.co.uk/topics/politics/articles-reports/2022/03/16/policing-bill-britons-support-proposed-new-police-
‘The Government Has Agreed a Deal Where Some People Who Have Entered Britain to Apply for Asylum Will Be Flown to Rwanda, in Africa, for Their Asylum Applications to Be Processed. If Their Application Is Successful, They Would Be Granted Asylum in Rwanda, and Would Not Be Entitled to Return to Britain. Do You Support or Oppose This Proposal? | Daily Question’, accessed 20 April 2023, https://yougov.co.uk/topics/politics/survey-results/daily/2022/10/31/3c056/2
‘A Large Majority of Britons Disapprove of the Government’s Handling of Immigration | YouGov’, accessed 20 April 2023, https://yougov.co.uk/topics/politics/articles-reports/2022/12/19/large-majority-britons-disapprove-governments-hand
Sobolewska and Ford, ‘British Culture Wars?’
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