Alexander R McN, Jayes AS, Maloiy GMO. 1979. Allometry of the limb bones of mammals from shrews (Sorex) to elephant (Loxodonta). Journal of Zoology, London, 189: 305-314.
Barclay OR. 1953. Some aspects of the mechanics of mammalian locomotion. Journal of Experimental Biology, 30: 116-120.
Björck G. 1958. Studies on the draught force of horses. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavice, Supplement 4: 1-109.
Burr DB, Pietrowski G, Miller GJ. 1981. Structural strength of the macaque femur. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 54: 305-319.
Carlson KJ, Demes B, Franz TM. 2005. Mediolateral forces associated with quadrupedal gaits of lemurids. Journal of Zoology, London, 266: 261-273.
Connour JR, Glander K, Vincent F. 2000. Postcranial adaptations for leaping in primates. Journal of Zoology, 251: 79-103.
Crompton RH, Thorpe S, Wang W, et al. 2003. The biomechanical evolution of erect bipedality. Courrier Forschungsinstitut Senkenberg, 243: 135-146.
Crompton RH, Verecke EE Thorpe SKS. 2008. Locomotion and posture from the common hominoid ancestor to fully modern hominins, with special reference to the last common panin/hominin ancestor. Journal of Anatomy, 212: 501-543.
Demes B, Jungers WL. 1989. Functional differentiation of long bones in Lorises. Folia Primatologia, 59: 58-69.
Demes B, Larson SG, Stern Jr JT, Jungers WL, Biknevicius AR, Schmitt D. 1994. The kinetics of primate quadrupedalism: “Hindlimb drive” reconsidered. Journal of Human Evolution, 26: 353-374.
DeSilva JM. 2009. Functional morphology of the ankle and the likelihood of climbing in early hominins. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, U.S.A., 106: 6567-6572.
DeSilva JM., Papakyrikos A. 2011. A case of valgus ankle in an Early Pleistocene hominin. International Journal of Osteoarcheology, 21:732-742.
Deutsch AR, Dickinson E, Leonard KC, Pastor F, Muchlinski MN, Hartstone-Rose A. 2020. Scaling of anatomically derived maximal bite force in primates. The Anatomical Record, 303:2026-2035.
Druelle F, Berthert M, Quintard B. 2019. The body center of mass in primates: Is it more caudal than in other quadrupedal mammals? American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 169: 170-178.
Erickson GE. 1963. Brachiation in New World monkeys and in anthropoid apes. In JR Napier & NA Barnicott (Eds.), The Primates (pp. 135-164). London, Zoological Society of London.
Galilei G. 1638. Discorse e Dimoetrazioni Matematiche. (After Japanese transtation by Konno T. 1948. Shin Kagaku Taiwa, Tokyo, Iwanami)
Hildebrand M. 1967. Symmetrical gait of primates. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 26: 119-130.
Hunt KD. 2016. Why are there apes? Evidence for the co-evolution of ape and monkey ecomorphology. Journal of Anatomy. 228:630-685.
Hunt KD, Cant JGH, Gebo DL, Rose MD, Walker SE, Youlatos D. 1996. Standardized descriptions of primate locomotor and postural modes. Primates, 37:363-387.
Ishida H, Kawabata N, Matano S. 1983. Mode of descending and functional morphology of the biceps femoris muscle in the slow loris (Nycticebus caucang). Annales de Sciences Naturelles, Zoologie, Paris, 13e Série, vol. 5 : 67-74.
Iwamoto M, Tomita M. 1966. On the movement order of four limbs while walking and the body weight distribution to fore and hind limbs while standing on all fours in monkeys. Journal of the Anthropological Society of Nippon, 74: 228-231.
Jungers WL. 1985. Body size and scaling of limb proportions in primates. In WL Jungers (Ed.), Size and Scaling in Primate Biology (pp. 345-381). New York, Plenum Press.
Jungers WL, Burr DB. 1994. Body size, long bone geometry and locomotion in quadrupedal monkeys. Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Anthropologie, 80: 89-97.
Jungers WL, Burr DB, Cole MS. 1998. Body size and scalig of long bone geometry, bone strength, and positional behavior in cercopithecoid primates. In E Strasser, J Fleagle, A Rosenberger & H McHenry (Eds.), Primate Locomotion: Recent Advances (pp. 309-330). New York, Plenum Press.
Kimura T. 1985. Bipedal and quadrupedal walking of primates: comparative dynamics. In S Kondo, H Ishida, T Kimura, M Okada, N Yamazaki & JH Prost (Eds.), Primate Morphophysiology, Locomotor Analyses, and Human Bipedalism (pp. 81-104). Tokyo, University of Tokyo Press.
Kimura T. 1991. Long and robust limb bones of primates. In A Ehara, T Kimura, O Takenaka & M Iwamoto (Eds.), Primatology Today (pp. 494-498). Amsterdam, Elsevier.
Kimura T. 1992. Hindlimb dominance during primate high-speed locomotion. Primates, 53: 465-476.
Kimura T. 1994. Body mass and scaling of limb bones in mammals. In Society of Biomechanisms, Japan. (Ed.), Biomechanisms 12 (pp. 51-60). Tokyo, University of Tokyo Press (In Japanese with English abstract).
Kimura T. 1995. Long bone characteristics of primates. Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Anthropologie, 80:265-280.
Kimura T. 2002. Primate limb bones and locomotor types in arboreal or terrestrial environments. Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Anthropologie, 83:201-219.
Kimura T. 2003. Differentiation between fore- and hindlimb bones and locomotor behaviour in primates. Folia Primatologica, 74:17-32.
Kimura T. 2019. How did human acquire erect bipedal walking? Anthropological Science, 127: 1-12.
Kimura T, Ishida H, Okada M. 1979. Kinesiological characteristics of primate walking: its significance in human walking. In MF Morbeck, H Preuschoft & N Gomberg (Eds.), Environments, Behavior, and Morphology: Dynamic Interactions in Primates (pp. 297-311). New York, Gustav Fischer.
Kimura T, Takahashi H. 1992. Cross-sectional geometry of the Minatogawa limb bones. In T Akazawa, K Aoki & T Kimura (Eds.), The Evolution and Dispersal of Modern Humans in Asia (pp. 305-320). Tokyo, Hakusen-Sha.
Krüger W. 1943. Ueber die Beziehungen zwischen Schwerpunktslage und Stärke der Substantia compacta einzelner Gliedmassenknochen bei vierfüssigne Säugertieren. Morphologisches Jahrbuch, 88: 377-396.
Larson SG, Schmitt D, Lemelin P, Hamrick D. 2000. Uniqueness of primate forelimb posture during quadrupedal locomotion. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 112: 87-101.
Latimer B, Ohman JC, Lovejoy CO. 1987. Talocrural joint in African hominoids: implications for Australopithecus afarensis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 74: 155-175.
Manter JT. 1938. The dynamics of quadrupedal waking. Journal of Experimental Biology, 15: 522-540.
Marchi D. 2007. Relative strength of tibia and fibula and locomotor behavior in hominoids. Journal of Human Evolution, 53: 647-655.
Marchi D. 2015. Variation in tibia and fibula diaphyseal strength and its relationship with arboreal and terrestrial locomotion: extending the investigation to non-hominoid primates. Journal of Anthropological Sciences, 93: 153-156.
Martin R, Saller K. 1957. Lehrbuch der Anthropologie, Band I. Stuttgart, Gustav Fischer.
Mongle CS, Wallace IJ, Grine FE. 2015. Cross-sectional structural variation related to midshaft along hominin diaphysis. II. The hind limb. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 158: 398-407.
Nakatsukasa M. 2004. Acquisition of bipedalism: the Miocene hominoid record and modern analogues for bipedal protohominids. Journal of Anatomy, 204: 385-402.
Napier JR, Napier PH. 1985. The Natural History of the Primates. London, British Museum (Natural History).
O’Neill MC, Demes B, Thompson NE, Umberger BR. 2018. Three-dimensional kinematics and the origin of the hominin walking stride. Journal of The Royal Society Interface, 15: 20180205.
Orr CM. 2005. Knuckle-walking anteater: a convergence test of adaptation for purported knuckle-walking features of African Hominidae. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 128: 639-658.
Perry JMG, Cook SB, Connour JAR, Burgess ML, Ruff CB. 2017. Articular scaling and body mass estimation in platyrrhines and catarrhines: modern variation and application on fossil anthropoids. Journal of Human Evolution, 115:20-35.
Pina M, Alba DM, Almécija S, Fortuny J, Moyà-Solà S. 2012. Paleobiological inferences on the locomotor repertoire of extinct hominoids based on femoral neck cortical thickness: the fossil great ape Hispanopithecus laietanus as a test-case study. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 149: 142-148.
Polk JD, Demes B, Jungers WL, Binevicius AR, Heinrich RE, Runestad JA. 2000. A comparison of primate, carnivoran and rodent limb bone cross-sectional properties: are primate really unique? Journal of Human Evolution, 39: 297-325.
Pratt GW, O’Conner JT Jr. 1976. Force plate studies of equine biomechanics. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 37:1251-1255.
Prost JH. 1965. The methodology of gait analysis and gaits of monkeys. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 23:215-240.
Raichlen DA, Gordon AD, Foster AD, et al. 2015. An ontogenetic framework linking locomotion and trabecular bone architecture with applications for reconstructing hominin life history. Journal of Human Evolution, 81: 1-12.
Raichlen DA, Pontzer H. 2021. Energetic and endurance constraints on great ape quadrupedalism and the benefits of hominin bipedalism. Evolutionary Anthropology, 30:253-261.
Raichlen DA, Pontzer H, Shapiro LJ, Sockol MD. 2009. Understanding hind limb weight support in chimpanzee with implications for the evolution of primate locomotion. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 138: 396-402.
Reynolds TR. 1985. Mechanics of increased support of weight by the hindlimbs in primates. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 67: 335-349.
Remis M. 1995. Effects of body size and social context on the arboreal activities of lowland gorillas in the Central African Republic. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 97: 413-433.
Remis MJ. 1998. The gorilla paradox: the effects of body size and habitat on the positional behavior of lowland and mountain gorillas. In E Strasser, J Fleagle, A Rosenberger & H McHenry (Eds.), Primate Locomotion: Recent Advances (pp. 95-196). New York, Plenum Press.
Ruff C. 1987. Structural allometry of the femur and tibia in hominoidea and Macaca. Folia Primatologica, 48: 9-49.
Ruff CB. 1989. New approach to structural evolution of limb bones in primates. Folia Primatologica, 52: 142-159.
Ruff CB. 2002. Long bone articular and diaphyseal structure in Old World monkeys and apes. I. Locomotor effects. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 119:305-342.
Sarringhaus LA, MacLatchy LM, Mitani JC. 2014. Locomotor and postural development of wild chimpanzees. Journal of Human Evolution. 66:29-38.
Schaffler MB, Burr DB, Jungers WL, Ruff CB. 1985. Structural and mechanical indicators of limb specialization in primates. Folia Primatologia, 45: 61-75.
Schmitt D. 2003. Insights into the evolution of human bipedalism from experimental studies of human and other primates. Journal of Experimental Biology, 206: 1437-1448.
Schmitt D. Hanna JB. 2004. Substrate alters forelimb to hindlimb peak force ratios in primates. Journal of Human Evolution, 46: 239-254.
Schmitt D, Lemelin P. 2002. Origins of primate locomotion: gait mechanics of the woolly opossum. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 118: 231-238.
Schultz AH. 1953. The relative thickness of the long bones and the vertebrae in primates. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 11: 217-311.
Senut B, Pickford M, Gommery D, Ségalen L. 2018. Plaeoenvironments and the origin of hominid bipedalism. Historical Evolution, 30: 284-296.
Stern JT. Jr. 1975. Before bipedality. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 19: 59-68.
Stock JT, Shaw CN. 2007. Which measures of diaphyseal robusticity are robust? A comparison of external methods of quantifying the strength of long bone diaphyses to cross-sectional geometric properties. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 134:412-423.
Strasser E. 1992. Hindlimb proportions, allometry, and biomechanics in Old World primates. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 87: 187-213.
Tallman M, Almécija S, Reber SL, Alba DM, Moyà-Solà S. 2013. The distal tibia of Hispanopithecus laietanus: more evidence for mosaic evolution in Miocene apes. Journal of Human Evolution, 64: 319-327.
Tardieu C, 2010. Development of the human hind limb and its importance for the evolution of bipedalism. Evolutionary Anthropology, 19: 174-186.
Tardieu C, Preuschoft H. 1996. Ontogeny of the knee joint in humans, great apes and fossil hominids: pelvi-femoral relationships during postnatal growth in humans. Folia Primatologica, 66: 68-81.
Thompson DW. 1917. On Growth and Form (After abridged edition in 1961). Cambridge, University Press.
Thorpe SKS, McClymont JM, Crompton RH. 2014. The arboreal origins of human bipedalism. Antiquity, 88: 906-914.
Thorpe SKS, Crompton RH. 2005. Locomotor ecology of wild orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus abelii) in the Gunung Leuser Ecosystem, Sumatra, Indonesia: a multivariate analysis using log-linear modelling. American Journal of physical Anthropology, 127: 58-78.
Tomita M. 1967. A study on the movement pattern of four limbs in walking (1). Journal of the Anthropological Society of Nippon, 75: 120-145.
Turley K, Guthrie EH, Frost SR. 2011. Geometric morphometric analysis of tibial shape and presentation among catarrhine taxa. Anatomical Record, 294: 217-230.
Vereecke EE, D’Août K, Aerts P. 2006. Speed modulation in hylobatic bipedalism: A kinematic analysis. Journal of Human Evolution, 53: 513-526.
Walker A. 1974. Locomotor adaptations in past and present prosimian primates. In FA Jenkins Jr. (Ed.), Primate Locomotion (pp. 349-381). New York, Academic Press.
Ward CV. 1998. Afropithecus, Proconsul, and the primitive hominoid skeleton. In E Strasser, J Fleagle, A Rosenberger & H McHenry (Eds.), Primate Locomotion: Recent Advances (pp. 337-352). New York, Plenum.
White TD, Lovejoy CO, Asfaw B, Carlson JP, Suwa G. 2015. Neither chimpanzee nor human, Ardipithecus reveals the surprising ancestry of both. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, U.S.A., 1112: 4877-4884.
Yamanaka A, Gunji H, Ishida H. 2005. Curvature, length, and cross-sectional geometry of the femur and humerus in anthropoid primates. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 127 : 46-57.