Research at Fumane is coordinated by the Ferrara University (M.P.) in the framework of a project supported by MIBACT, public institutions (Lessinia Mountain Community, Fumane Municipality and others). Research at Grotta di San Bernardino is designed by Ferrara University (M.P.) and was supported by MIBACT, the Province of Vicenza, the Veneto Region – Department for Cultural Heritage, and the Italian Ministry of Research and Education.

The authors thank two anonymous reviewers for considerably ameliorating the manuscript.

1 - Introduction

1The Middle Palaeolithic is well recorded in Northern Italy, in open air sites, rock-shelters and caves. In the last decade the taphonomic revision of faunal assemblages and new zooarchaeological studies have allowed for the reconstruction of activities, strategies and cultural behaviors of Neandertal groups who frequented this geographical area. Habitual aspects of their dietary habits have been revealed (Fiore et al., 2004) alongside less common ones.

2While few Neandertal archaeological sites have been found dating to the Late Middle Pleistocene, a more detailed record is preserved for the Upper Pleistocene, particularly in MIS3 (Peresani, 2011). Remains of small sized fauna bearing traces of anthropogenic modifications, have also been found, which shed light on the range of species hunted by Neandertals beyond functional or alimentary purposes (Alhaique et al., 2004; Fiore et al., 2004, 2016; Peresani et al., 2011b; Romandini et al., 2014b; 2016). This evidence has been previously recorded in the Mousterian and Uluzzian levels of Fumane cave (FC), where several bones of V. vulpes are cut-marked (Romandini, 2012; Tagliacozzo et al., 2013). This picture is further enriched by the cut-marks observed on a mandible, humerus and scapula of Marmota marmota from Riparo Tagliente (RT; Thun-Hohenstein, 2001, 2006; Thun Hohenstein & Peretto, 2005) and on Castor fiber remains identified at Grotta Maggiore di San Bernardino (GrMSB).

2 - Methods

3The bones examined in this study have been discovered in the last 30 years of excavations using dry and wet sieving. Taxonomic and skeletal identifications are based on the complete alpine fauna reference collection for Pleistocene and modern fauna. Bone surfaces were macroscopically and microscopically examined using low magnification lens (10-20 X) with incident white light and Leica S6D Greenough stereo microscope with 0.75-70 X magnification range for capturing images. Further qualitative data were collected via SEM observations at the University of Turin. In order to identify the nature of surface modifications and to distinguish human from animal traces, trampling abrasion, and modern mechanical marks produced by excavation tools, reference was made to well-established taphonomic literature (Domìnguez-Rodrigo et al., 2009). Combustion degree has been distinguished between moderate (200-500 °C, black/brown) and elevated, with calcination (> 700 °C, grey/white) (Shipman et al., 1984). Cut-marks have been classified as incisions, like skinning marks, defleshing marks, and scraping marks (Binford, 1981; Potts and Shipman, 1981; Shipman, 1981; Shipman & Rose, 1984).

3 - Results

3.1 - Fumane cave

4Fumane cave (fig. 1) is located at 350 m asl in the western part of the Lessini Mountains (Veneto Prealps, Northern Italy) and has produced a sequence spanning the Late Middle - Early Upper Palaeolithic from MIS 5 to 2 (Martini et al., 2001; Peresani et al., 2008; López-García et al., 2015; Obradović et al., 2015). The focus of this paper is the final Mousterian embedded in the stratigraphic complex A5-A6, dated to 44.8-42.2 ky cal. BP (Higham et al., 2009). The faunal assemblage comprises a large association of ungulates and some birds from different ecological contexts (tab. 1) that, except for the wild boar, bear traces of human exploitation and scarce evidence of carnivore gnawing (Peresani et al., 2011a,b). Also some carnivores as Ursus arctos, Ursus spelaeus and Vulpes vulpes where skinned and defleshed (Romandini, 2012; Romandini et al., in press).

5Red fox is well represented in A5-A5+A6 (NISP 26 = 3.1 %) and A6 (NISP 20 = 0.8 %) (fig. 2A; tab. 1), with Vulpes remains from both units amounting to an MNI of 5: 4 adults and one juvenile. All of the anatomical regions are represented: 18 cranial elements (6 cranial fragments, 9 emimandibles and 3 undetermined teeth), 8 from the trunk (5 vertebrae and 3 ribs), 2 from the forelimb (1 radius and 1 carpal), 11 from the hind limb (2 coxals, 2 femura, 1 tibia, 1 patella, 4 tarsals and 1 metatarsal), 7 among 1^st, 2^nd, and 3^rd phalanges and a metapodial from an unidentified limb. Three cranial fragments (1 hemimandible fragment and 2 cranial fragments) from a possible adult Alopex lagopus are exclusively present in A5-A5+A6. Even though the analysed RN is limited, it is possible to notice how the balance between anatomical regions is biased towards the skull and limb extremities. So far 4 out of the 46 remains attributed to red fox have revealed butchering traces, a calcaneus, cervical vertebra (fig. 2A1), a tibia (fig. 2A2) and calcaneus and an hemimandible of cf. Alopex lagopus have clear cut-marks which can be attributed to hide removal and muscle detachment. The extension of the analysis to the whole assemblage is underway.

3.2 - Riparo tagliente

6Riparo Tagliente is a rockshelter located (fig. 1) downslope of Monte Tregnago (250 m asl) on the left slope of Valpantena, one of the main valley-bottoms of the Lessini Mountains. Excavations have exposed a long Late Mousterian stratigraphy over 2.80 m thick (levels 52 to 31). Geological, bioarchaeological and cultural data place the top of this unit in MIS3 (Bartolomei et al., 1982, 1984; Guerreschi et al., 2002) where intense or repeated occupations are recorded in upper levels (42-34) by denser amounts of remains than in the lower ones (52-44) (Arzarello & Peretto, 2005). Faunal remains are dominated by ungulates (tab. 1), but marmot are found in all layers. The overall faunal assemblage (tab. 1) is dominated by adult and sub-adults, with some fetal/neonate cervid bones (levels 37 and 36) suggesting the shelter was used in the spring/summertime.

7The zooarchaeological and taphonomical analyses indicated that variability across the sequence in faunal remains accumulated at the site by both Neandertals and carnivores (Thun Hohenstein, 2001, 2006). Neandertals exploited carcasses at the site: butchery marks and bone breakage on ungulate bones increase from the base to the top of the sequence. Countless burned fragments were also found, but limited to levels 35, 36 and 37. Cut-marks, attributable to skinning and to meat procurement have been recognized also on marmot remains in levels 35 and 36 (fig. 2B) which are devoid of any evidence of burning. In level 35, only five remains of one adult marmot have been recovered (2 teeth, 1 vertebra and 1 cut-marked humerus). Adult marmot bones have been recovered in level 36: 4 fragmented elements of the axial skeleton (1 hemimandible, 3 vertebrae), 7 from the forelimb (1 scapula, 3 humerus, 2 radii, 1 ulna) and 5 from the hind limb (1 tibia, 2 tarsals, 1 metatarsal). The hemimandible contains a sequence of long and parallel striae on the external surface (fig. 2B1) and the scapula a series of thin oblique cut-marks on the suprascapular notch that can be attributed to skinning and disarticulating.

3.3 - Grotta Maggiore di San Bernardino

8The cave opens on the eastern slope of the Berici karst plateau (Vicenza), 135 m asl, west of the alluvial plain of the Bacchiglione River (fig. 1). Eight lithological units compose a Middle-Late Pleistocene stratigraphic sequence (Cassoli & Tagliacozzo, 1994; Peresani, 2001; Picin et al., 2013, López-García et al., 2017. A majority of the total faunal remains at the site (78 %) belong to ungulates, although the frequency of ungulate remains varies between the units (tab 1).

9Preliminary taphonomic observations on large ungulate bone surfaces from the main part of the sequence have revealed traces of disarticulation, recovering of meat, intentional fracturing of shafts and the use of bone flakes like retouchers. Evidence of carnivore activity is scarce (Malerba & Giacobini, 1998a, b).

10Unit II is the only one to have been zooarchaeologically analysed in detail. It records humid climatic conditions, the expansion of woodlands (Cassoli & Tagliacozzo, 1994; López-García et al., 2017) and an increase in the rate of accumulation of anthropogenic remains with respect to the underling units, as suggested from the dense content in faunal remains, lithic artefacts and hearths (Peresani, 2011). Thus far, 7,361 bone have been recovered in total, of those burned bones make up 50 % and the calcinated bones 8 % of the assemblage. Beaver bones are distributed across the sequence and come mainly from units II-level B (No 25) and IV-levels C and D (No 14) (Cassoli & Tagliacozzo 1994, table 11). The most represented anatomical elements are the extremities of the paws (79 %) and of the axial skeleton (9.4 %), whereas the long bones are ascribable only to the forelimb (humerus and ulna). Cranial remains are rare.

11Beaver remains from Unit II (fig. 2C) are mostly phalanges (No 11): there are 8 proximal phalanges and 6 of them are complete; there are 2 middle phalanges (1 is complete, and 1 is a distal fragment) and 1 distal phalanx that is complete. Forelimb shafts are rare (1 humerus and 2 ulnae); hind limbs are represented by a patella and fragmented metatarsals. A fragmented left zygomatic bone and a caudal vertebra are also present. The MNI for these fragement is four individuals, two juveniles, probably sub-adults, and two adults, identified on the base of the metapodials and the phalanges with fused and unfused epiphysis. The bones are mostly fragmentary and have abraded surfaces. The patella and the first phalanx are totally combusted, a second phalanx is calcinated. Although rare, traces of carnivore gnawing have been observed. Clear traces of anthropogenic intervention have been documented on a right juvenile 3^rd metatarsal and a right ulna of an adult marmot (fig. 2C1). Deep cut-marks and repeated scrapings are related to defleshing (fig. 2C1) and recovering of the hide.

4 - Discussion

12The Neandertal modifications recorded on beaver and marmot bones at Grotta Maggiore di San Bernardino and Riparo Tagliente are rare finds. The exploitation of fox at Fumane is also rare but within that site they are found in the Uluzzian (A3 and A4) and the Proto-Aurignacian (A2), where in addition to fox, other small and medium sized carnivores (wolf, lynx) were hunted (Romandini, 2012; Tagliacozzo et al., 2013).

13In the Northeastern Mediterranean regions, only one other Middle Palaeolithic site has produced evidence comparable to our sites. Krapina Cave in Croatia, has yielded cut-marked brown bear, marmot and beaver bones (Miracle, 2007). Beaver (NISP 353, MNI 19) remains mostly come from layer 1 (Castor fiber zone) dated to ~130,000 years ago (Rink et al., 1995) and is represented by teeth, cranial bones, upper hind limb bones, a pelvis, and lower hind limb bones. Cut-marks on mandibles, tibia and ulna suggest skinning and/or removal of limb extremities; cut-marks on the ilia were probably produced by disarticulation or defleshing. The marmot remains (NISP 26, MNI 3) at the site include the skull, and some long bones, but the distal extremities are almost absent. The only mandible is cut-marked at the base, probably due to skinning.

5 - Conclusion

14In Italy evidence of Neanderthal exploitation of small prey has increased in the last decade as a result of the refinement of excavation methods and the re-examination of faunal assemblages excavated during the 20^th century. Although limited, the small game hunted in these three sites does not contradict the ecological context reconstructed in the past, which were based on medium-large mammals, often dominated by cervids. Even though other faunal assemblages from this area need to be studied in full, it is important to note that small mammal exploitation occurs more frequently at the end of the Middle Palaeolithic, a crucial period for Neandertals in Western Eurasia as they go extinct around 40 ky BP (Higham et al., 2014). Neandertals were then replaced by the earliest Anatomically Modern Humans. This paper provides evidence that small mammals were utilized by archaic hominins as sources of food and fur. This evidence from Northeastern Italy will add to long held debates surrounding Optimal Foraging Theory (Smith, 1983) and the reasons for the selection of resources across the Middle Palaeolithic.