This research was carried out with FAR 2012-2014 funding of the University of Ferrara and Erasmus Mundus IDQP PhD scholarship (2015-2018) of the first author. We extend warm thanks to members who participated both on and off-site (Isernia La Pineta and Ferrara) in this project.

1 - Introduction

1.1 - Site and stratigraphy

1Among the earliest European archaeological sites, the Lower Palaeolithic, open-air site (fig. 1A) of Isernia La Pineta (Molise, Italy), lies inside continental Pleistocene deposits forming the sediments of the Isernia-Venafro infra-Apennine basin, situated in the Upper Valley of river Volturno. The stratigraphy of Isernia la Pineta site is characterized by 5 main Units (U1 to 5) and 2 buried palaeosols (S1 and 2). The stratigraphy of Unit 3 (in the sector I) contains various sedimentological layers (U3A, U3E, U3F) including three archaeosurfaces (3c, 3a and 3S10), characterized by an impressive repertoire of lithic tools and faunal remains. Unit 3 is composed of sands and thin layers of gravels deposited by ephemeral rivers and is subdivided into three sedimentary sub-Units (U3A, U3E, U3F). The sub-Unit U3E includes, from the base to the top, archaeosurface 3a, 3 colluvium level (henceforth 3 coll), archaeosurface 3s10, and finally 3s6-9 and 3s1-5 levels (fig. 1B) (Cremaschi & Peretto, 1988; Coltorti et al., 2005; Arzarello & Peretto, 2010; Shao et al., 2011; Orain et al., 2013; Gallotti & Peretto, 2015). Several archaeozoological and taphonomic analyses have been carried out on their faunal assemblages (Sala, 1996, 2006; Thun Hohenstein et al., 2002; Alhaique et al., 2004; Arobba et al., 2004; Thun Hohenstein et al., 2004, 2009).

modified after Peretto et al., 2015

1.2 - Why 3 colluvium for GIS?

2The scope provided by this extensively excavated (for over 3 decades), well-documented and inter-disciplinarily researched site for the application of Geographic Information System (GIS) as a powerful and appropriate computer-based tool for the simultaneous treatment of all information concerning its finds, especially faunal remains, was recognized. Till present, GIS enabled analyses, visualisation (2D frequency, density and distribution maps) and tentative interpretation of intra-site spatial distribution trends in the faunal context were designed and developed for all osseous remains (3a, 3s6-9 and 3s1-5), species (3c and 3a), anatomical parts of all species (3c and 3a), and in particular, of bison, elephant and rhinoceros (3a) (Peretto, 1999; Peretto et al., 2004; Lembo & Gallotti, 2006; Gallotti et al., 2012; Lembo & Peretto, 2012). In case of 3 coll, only a general planimetry map of broad categories such as “flint” and “bones” were created for finds recovered until the year 2004. However, taphonomic variables had not been incorporated yet. Hence, the 3 coll faunal assemblage from Sector I, in particular, presented an opportunity to take GIS studies at this site forward. Recently, this level came into prominence for the site’s first human remain discovery, a deciduous incisor, dated to 583-561 ka by 40Ar/39Ar (MIS 15/MIS 14) (Peretto et al., 2015). Volcanically originated, terrigenous level, made of silt, sandy silt, sand, large blocks of travertine along with pyroclastic sediments and sanidine, it is positioned in the stratigraphy as a well-defined geological event, a debris flow/mud-slide, around 30- 100 cm thick. Archaeologically rich, 15,065 finds have been unearthed from this level till date, comprising 1,093 (7.3 %) limestone, 780 (5.2 %) travertine, 6,336 (42.1 %) lithic and 6,856 (45.5 %) faunal remains.

1.3 - 3 Colluvium faunal composition

3Updated archaeozoological investigations have revealed varied spectra comprising 4 orders, 7 families, 11 genera and 10 species which embody this faunal assemblage. Currently, 6,193 (90.3 %) osseous remains from this level have been analysed. Both anatomically and taxonomically identified remains number 1,112 (rate of determination 17.9 %) whereas 2,545 (41.1 %) remain unidentified. Taxonomically identified remains are 928 (14.9 %) while only anatomically determined remains are 2,536 (40.9 %). Of the remaining, 15 are categorized as “Artiodactyle”, 56 as “Herbivore” and 53 as “Large Ungulate”. Ungulate remains clearly dominate this assemblage with an 87.3 % presence while remains attributed to carnivores contribute merely 12.7 % to the “Number of Identified Specimens” NISp. Overall, the species most represented in terms of NISp and “Minimum number of Individuals” (MNI) respectively are Bison schoetensacki (50.2 % and 6) followed by Stephanorhinus hundsheimensis (18.9 % and 5), Ursus deningeri (14.1 % and 2) and Palaeoloxodon antiquus (13.3 % and 2). Other taxa, such as Hippopotamus cf. antiquus, Sus scrofa, Praemegaceros solilhacus, Cervus elaphus cf. acoronatus, Dama cf. roberti, Capreolus sp. and Hemitragus cf. bonali, are scarcely represented (combined NISp % = 3.5 %; MNI = 1 individual each).

4Considering this background, the research hence presents the results obtained from the initial attempts made at treating the 3 colluvium faunal component in conjunction with few select natural taphonomic effects like weathering, erosion and exfoliation as spatial variables and addressing specific queries through 2D maps to see if any trends regarding their effect, emerged.

2 – Material and methods

2.1 - Faunal material

5The 3 colluvium faunal material analysed (NR 6,193) was recovered from the years 2000-2016 from an excavated surface area of approximately 90 m². Its provenance lies in 18 squares in the 4^th quadrant and 70 squares in the 1^st quadrant of Sector 1, each measuring 1 m².

2.2 - Taphonomic analyses methods

6Microscopic examinations of each remain was carried out under Leica S6D model at the L.A.T, and SEM at University of Ferrara, aiming at identifying, distinguishing and localizing the nature of marks (both anthropic and post-depositional) on bone surfaces supported further by literature (Fisher, 1995; Anconetani et al., 1996; Blumenschine et al., 1996; Dominguez-Rodrigo et al., 2009; Pickering & Egeland, 2006). Based on Behrensmeyer’s (1978) definitive criteria, weathering observed on the material was given a score of 0 (absent) or 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 (present). According to her criteria, weathering proceeded in what was described as cracking/no cracking or flaking of bone surface, longitudinal and/or mosaic cracking present on surface, fibrous texture, cracked edges rounded, coarsely fibrous texture, splinters of bone loose on the surface, open cracks, bone crumbling in situ, and finally large splinters. Exfoliation occurred from stage 3 onwards with increasing intensity. Exfoliation, cracking and rounding of edges etc are variables which otherwise are visible almost always together or in varying combinations. In the case of Isernia 3 colluvium, during initial analysis, it was observed that Behrensmeyer’s criteria was not always applicable. Some bones had no evidence of cracking or fibrous texture or cracked rounded edges. They only demonstrated exfoliation and vice versa. Therefore, these closely-related descriptive criteria of exfoliation, erosion and weathering were considered as three separate specific variables for our analysis. This was done to have better analytical control over the taphonomic variables and their interpretation. Weathering was essentially related to climatic factors and identified by so-called cracks and micro-cracks, in the order of increasing intensity from slight cracking/splitting in early stages to heavy cra-cking/deep splitting in later stages of the surface oriented according to the arrangement of the structural elements attributable to pre and post-depositional factors (loss of organic matter, temperature variations and humidity, etc.). Rolled edges and abrasions impacting bone surface integrity was considered as erosion whereas removal of cortical/superficial bone material was associated with exfoliation (Lyman, 1994; Andrews, 1995; Fisher, 1995; Reitz & Wing, 1999; Little-ton, 2000; Denys, 2002; Fernández-Jalvo & Andrews, 2003). Similar to weathering, the degree of intensity and localization of erosion and exfoliation was denoted by 0 (absent), 1 (light), 2 (marked) and 3 (diffused) when present. For our study, we have taken into consideration presence (denoted by “1”) and absence (denoted by “0”) of three agents; weathering (W), erosion (E) and exfoliation (E) together in all their eight possible combinations (000, 100, 010, 001, 110, 101, 011 and 111).

2.3 - GIS methods

7In order to highlight the specific phenomena of alteration in detail, frequency maps were created. The creation of such maps was made possible through the power of SQL (Structured Query Language) of QGIS. The altered remains were grouped and counted per square not by querying the database, but by using the typological functions of GIS. An SQL procedure, starting from the topological overlay of the base of the excavation grid of 1 x 1 m on the thematic levels, automatically calculated the number of objects whose centroid fell in each reference square. This resulted in a new table comprising two fields, one containing the name of the square and the other containing the number of objects enclosed in it. This new table, always through SQL query, was connected to the table of the reference grid. By matching the names of squares, a new map was generated, in which were displayed the squares that contained at least one object. This new map was processed through the ‘create thematic map’ function and it generated a frequency map, in which the colour of each square was patterned according to the range of values corresponding to it. The intervals were created automatically or manually. The intersection of different frequency maps allowed the creation of relationship maps, in which using the form of a graph, the relationships between the number of remains of different categories contained in a square were created. Invariably, through SQL query, it was possible to connect by means of the square number, tables of several frequency maps related to various types of remains.

3 - Results

3.1 - Taphonomic results

8Post-depositional alterations caused by natural agents contributed varyingly. Weathering (58.3 %) and erosion (54.9 %) had a greater impact than other agents such as rounding (25.6 %) and exfoliation (18.2 %). Weathering was absent in 2,410 (stage ‘0’). However, 3,761 remains exhibited either one of the successive 4 stages while none had reached stage “5”. Slight weathering- stage “1” (fig. 2A), was seen on 2,545 remains whereas more advanced characteristic cracking was observed on 929 remains- stage “2”, 239 remains- stage “3”, and 48 remains-stage “4” (fig. 2B). No erosion was seen on 2,700 remains while 3,471 remains demonstrated varying degrees of erosion. Light erosion was seen on 1,859 remains, marked erosion on 879 remains (fig. 2C) and diffused erosion was documented on 733 remains. Exfoliation was absent in 4,993 remains and present in 1,178 remains. Light exfoliation was observed in 554 remains, marked exfoliation in 394 (fig. 2D) and diffused exfoliation was documented for 230 remains.

9Considering that weathering, erosion and exfoliation played a major role in the post-depositional taphonomic history of the assemblage, the eight “WEE” combinations revealed interesting results. While the absence of all three agents, corresponding to good preservation (combination 000) was documented for 898 remains (fig. 2E), on the contrary, 623 remains were clearly impacted by them (combination 111) corresponding to weaker preservation (fig. 2F). Single-agent impact with no visible effect of other two agents varied in quantity. Only weathering (combination 100) was found in 1,052 remains, only erosion (combination 010) on 794 remains and only exfoliation (combination 001) was recorded on the least number of 133 remains. A number of remains with a combination of the presence of two agents and absence of one agent fluctuated. Both weathering and erosion (combination 110) were the highest- 1,852 remains. Impact of weathering and exfoliation but no erosion (combination 101) was recorded on 220 remains. Erosion and exfoliation with the absence of weathering (combination 011) were seen on 188 remains.

3.2 - 2D GIS analyses

10the first 2d map (fig. 3) generated, planimetrically illustrated a non-uniform distribution of all faunal remains analysed till present. the concentration of remains alternately ranged from being relatively homogenous in the central and eastern parts of the excavated area to a gradual increase in density towards the southern limit. the western and south western periphery revealed the sparse accumulation of remains. small circular gaps in the central and south central part exist because the remains recovered from there are currently under analyses.

11the second 2d frequency map (fig. 4a) focused on the relationship between altered (weathering+erosion+exfoliation) in black and unaltered in light grey. it highlighted areas, particularly in the central and extreme western limit of the excavated surface, of the major concentration of altered remains. in the eastern area, several squares represented the nearly equal number of remains with both good and bad preservation respectively. comparatively fewer aggregates of altered remains were found in the central western and southern areas, with remains from two squares totally devoid of alterations.

12The third 2D map (fig. 4B) displayed pie charts for each square demonstrating relationships between remains effected by each of the three agents (weathering-black, erosion-dark grey and exfoliation-light grey) while the colour of the squares indicated higher concentrations (darker hues of grey) or lower concentrations (lighter hues of grey) of altered remains. It became apparent that the centrally located, more or less homogenously distributed, lower concentration of remains, demonstrated greater alterations. The south eastern, south western and western periphery areas (except for 4 squares in the south) comprising more densely accumulated remains had undergone fewer alterations. The north eastern situated squares also had fewer alterations to demonstrate. Visual assessment of pie charts in each square showed that weathering ranging from one-thirds to two-thirds was invariably present in all squares. A similar observation held true for erosion, with exceptions of squares with less than one-third eroded remains randomly present in the excavated area. Exfoliation, on the contrary, was found in one-third or less than one-third remains in most squares. In the western squares with no colour (0-60 remains), exfoliation was visibly more or equal to the other two alterations. The remains in the central, north eastern and south central squares had undergone less exfoliation. In the south and south eastern squares, the number of exfoliated remains fluctuated with remains in some squares being devoid of it.

4 - Discussion and conclusions

13The present research worked with a numerically revised fauna assemblage of 3 colluvium and on a sample area much larger (entire excavated area) compared to the previous studies. Moreover, while the previous studies took into account all 3 coll finds as a whole (Gallotti et al., 2012), the present research focused on its faunal component. Interestingly, however, the distribution trends in both scenarios remained the same, with a conspicuous concentration of remains in the SE part of the excavated area due to the N-S oriented slope of the debris-flow. Having established a tentative genesis of their distribution, it became imperative to understand which diagenetic agencies had majorly modified these remains. Taphonomic analysis of all possible natural agents and their visible effects clearly indicated weathering and erosion to be primary factors in the post-depositional history of these remains. The well-preserved remains were few and their provenance lay in the south and extreme west. The central area had clearly undergone greater alterations due to these agencies. Tentatively, with the available results, it is inferred that fewer remains less densely distributed in the central part of the excavated area, probably remained exposed to the impact of these taphonomic factors for a longer period of time. Higher quantity of remains, more densely distributed in the southern, south western and south eastern part otherwise experienced a quicker burial.

14To test these observations and further comprehend the post-depositional history of this level, future GIS studies in the pipeline, including the depth dimension, will attempt to combine these results with additional natural taphonomic variables such as rounding, trampling marks, chemical modifications, root etchings and discolouration due to oxides. Aspects such as size and orientation of the individual remain, anatomical parts, species, bone fracturation (dry/fresh) and size of the bones will be incorporated.