Hope for Climate Justice in Labour Law in Quebec
- Cet article est une traduction de :
- L’espoir d’une justice climatique en droit du travail au Québec [fr]
Résumés
Dans le sillage des actions climatiques, la Cour d’appel du Québec identifie, dans l’affaire Environnement Jeunesse, des blocages majeurs de l’opposition des droits de l’homme et du droit international à l’inaction de l’État. Pourtant, ces normes fondamentales dans les litiges en droit du travail représentent une voie de passage pour les actions climatiques dirigées contre les entreprises.
Entrées d’index
Mots-clés :
droit du travail, justice climatique, droits de la personne, droit international, obligation de protection de l’employeurPlan
Haut de pageNotes de l’auteur
The author thanks Géraud de Lassus St-Geniès, Assistant Professor of Environmental Law at the Law Faculty of Laval University, for his comments on the preliminary version of the text. The author is solely responsible for the content of this text.
Texte intégral
1In the absence of ambitious greenhouses gases (GHGs) reduction targets set by governments to combat climate change and of voluntary measures by companies to reduce the environmental impact of their activities, the urgency of the situation now requires immediate legislative intervention in line with scientists’ recommendations.
- 1 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2023 - Synthesis Report. Summary for Poli (...)
- 2 Government of Quebec, « Impacts des changements climatiques »: https://www.quebec.ca/gouvernement/p (...)
2In its recent report, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) once again urges States to invest in an immediate and far-reaching reduction of GHGs in order to limit global warming to 1.5°C or to keep it below the threshold of 2°C compared to pre-industrial levels1. The government of Quebec does not deny that climate change is exposing the province’s population to an increase and an intensification of droughts, heat waves, intense rainfall, violent winds and significant temperature fluctuations2.
- 3 The State of the Netherlands v. Stichting Urgenda, ECLI:NL:HR:2019:2007. See C. Eckes, « Tackling t (...)
- 4 This ruling by The Hague District Court was appealed: Milieudefensie v. Royal Dutch Shell, ECLI:NL: (...)
3It is worth noting that precedents in the Netherlands are showing the way in terms of climate justice. Environmental organisations first sued the State, which gave rise to a historic Supreme Court ruling ordering the Dutch government to reduce its GHG emissions by 5 % for the year 2020 compared to the 1990 levels3. The same logic was then applied again to hold a private company, Royal Dutch Shell, liable, and it was ordered to reduce its global CO2 emissions by 45 % net by 2030, compared with 2019 levels4.
- 5 G. de Lassus St-Geniès, « Changements climatiques », JurisClasseur Québec, Droit de l’environnement(...)
- 6 M. Minnesma, « The Urgenda case in the Netherlands: creating a revolution through the courts », in (...)
4In these cases, seising the courts was an original strategy. It was not intended to ensure that the State or the companies comply with the standards established by lawmakers in environmental matters, but rather the objective was to create a judge-made precedent in the form of a precise and mandatory target for reducing GHGs, which did not exist in their national law or was not sufficiently binding5. Climate litigation is proving to be « an innovative way of working within the legal system »6 intented to better protect the environment and combat global warming.
- 7 S. Lavallée and E. Agossou, « L’émergence des actions climatiques au Canada à l’ère de l’Accord de (...)
5Inspired by the Dutch cases, an increasing number of climate lawsuits against the State and companies have been initiated all over the world, although with varying degrees of success from one place to another7.
- 8 Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, 4 November 1950, S.T.E., no (...)
- 9 9 May 1992, 1771 UNTC 107.
- 10 Off. Doc. UNFCCC, 21st sess., annex UN doc. FCCC/CP/2015/10/Add.1 (2016) 23.
- 11 C. Eckes, « Tackling the Climate Crisis with Counter-majoritarian Instruments: Judges Between Polit (...)
6In this respect, the European Convention on Human Rights8 (ECHR), the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change9 (UNFCCC) and the Paris Agreement10 are regularly cited, when these sources are interpreted in line with the scientific consensus that is emerging from the IPCC reports and the obligation of due diligence or vigilance derived from the law of the relevant country11.
- 12 Environnement Jeunesse v. Attorney General of Canada, 2019 QCCS 2885, § 135. A class action is a pr (...)
7In Canada, ENvironnement JEUnesse (ENJEU) filed a pionnering lawsuit mobilising fundamental rights in climate matters against the Canadian government. The non-profit organisation, which raises young people’s awareness of environmental issues, claims that the Canadian government’s inertia in implementing measures to limit global warming infringes the rights and freedoms of Quebec residents aged 35 and under. Among other remedies, it seeks a court order requiring the government to cease the alleged violation of human rights and punitive damages. At the preliminary stage, the Superior Court of Quebec refused to authorise this class action, on the grounds that the designated group was not appropriate12.
- 13 Environnement Jeunesse v. Attorney General of Canada, 2021 QCCA 1871.
8Seised of the case, the Court of Appeal of Quebec confirmed the decision of the court of first instance on this point, while taking its reasoning a step further. In its analysis of the texts used in climate litigation, the Court proposes a rather restrictive reading of their scope in both Canadian and Quebec law13.
- 14 Environnement Jeunesse v. Attorney General of Canada, 2022 CanLII 67615 (CSC).
9The Court of Appeal finally concluded that the federal government’s inaction in the fight against climate change was not justiciable. On 28 July 2022, the Canadian Supreme Court dismissed the application for leave to appeal to the Supreme Court, thereby sealing the fate of this climate lawsuit14. As for the possibility of taking legal action against a private company or against the employer who runs it, the matter remains unprecedented in Canada.
- 15 C. Lipsig-Mummé, D. Lafleur and G. Bickerton, « Climate Change and Canadian Unions: The Dilemma for (...)
- 16 D. Doorey, « Just Transitions Law: Putting Labour Law to Work on Climate Change », Journal of Envir (...)
10For the time being, the interactions between the environment and labour are mainly limited to the possibility of including environmental clauses in collective labour agreements15 and the protection of jobs as part of a just transition16.
11This article proposes to look more closely at the type of legal texts relied upon in the ENJEU case and to understand the causes of the obstacles encountered in Canadian law (I). The same instruments have been given a much more binding scope in the context of the employment relationship. The acceptance of human rights and international law in Canadian and Quebec labour law therefore open the way to climate justice (II). Labour law litigation can, in a way, serve as a model for climate lawsuits brought directly against a company or an employer.
I – The blocking of climate lawsuits against the Canadian government
12Some hard lessons were learned from the ENJEU case. It showed that international agreements and treaties on climate change have no direct effect on Canadian domestic law and do not authorise the courts to impose compliance with them on the government (A). Nor, in the event of a violation of fundamental rights, does the review of the constitutionality of a law allow the judicial authorities to dictate to the government what actions it must take to combat climate change when there is no law relating to this issue (B).
A – Failure to directly apply the international treaties on climate change into domestic law
- 17 G. de Lassus St-Geniès, « Changements climatiques », op. cit., § 20 (author’s translation).
- 18 Quebec acceded by Decree: Decree no. 1669-92 for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate (...)
- 19 UNFCCC, § 4.2a).
13Canada is bound by several international legal instruments that form a « multilateral system for combating climate change »17. Canada has been a party to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change since 4 December 199218. As an industrialised country listed in Annex I, the Canadian government must, among other things, adopt policies and take measures to mitigate climate change by limiting its anthropogenic greenhouse gases emissions19.
- 20 Paris Agreement, Art. 4.1.
- 21 Ibid., Art. 2.1a) and 4.1.
- 22 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, 2021 SCC 11, § 174.
14On 5 October 2016, the Canadian government also ratified the Paris Agreement, which as a clear goal: to limit GHG emissions globally20, by holding the rise in the planet’s temperature to below 2°C and by implementing actions to limit it to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels21. On an individual level, Article 4.2 of the Paris Agreement requires each of the parties to outline and communicate their nationally determined contributions, and to take domestic mitigation measures to achieve its target22.
- 23 After the ENJEU judgment, the federal government passed the Canadian Net-Zero Emissions Accountabil (...)
15To comply with this international obligation, the most recent contribution determined by Canada consists of reducing its GHG emissions by 40 to 45 % by 2030, compared to the 2005 levels, and to reach net zero by 2050 at the latest23.
- 24 Environnement Jeunesse v. Attorney General of Canada, 2021 QCCA 1871, op. cit., § 6.
- 25 Ibid., § 5.
- 26 Ibid., §7 (author’s translation).
- 27 Environnement Jeunesse v. Attorney General of Canada, op. cit., § 2.
- 28 Ibid., § 34.
16The UNFCCC and Paris Agreement were naturally invoked by ENJEU in its lawsuit against the Canadian government.24 ENJEU inferred from these international treaties that Canada had omitted to define GHG reduction targets that meet its international commitments25, especially since « the few measures introduced do not offer any hope of curbing global warming »26. From the outset, the Court of Appeal of Quebec does not question the existence of climate change. It even concedes that the solution to global warming requires a reduction of GHGs27. However, the Court concludes that these international treaties to which Canada is a party are not enforceable in domestic law28.
- 29 Turp v. Canada (Justice), 2012 FC 893.
- 30 Kazemi Estate v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 2014 SCC 62, § 149; Operation Dismantle v. The Queen, [1 (...)
17In a dualist state like Canada, the ratification of a treaty - which is a matter for the executive branch29 - is not sufficient to incorporate its obligations directly into Canadian law. It is up to the federal legislature and each province to incorporate, implement or adapt Canada’s international obligations into a law or regulation30. The international standards binding Canada in the fight against climate change cannot therefore be used by the courts to sanction the government’s conduct in the absence of a standard in domestic law that gives them legal effect.
B – Constitutionality review of laws with regard to fundamental rights in a context of climate emergency
- 31 Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982 [Schedule B to the Canada Act 1982 (UK), 1982, c 11] (hereinaf (...)
- 32 CQLR, c C-12.1, (hereinafter the “Quebec Charter”). This is a provincial law with a quasi-constitut (...)
- 33 Canadian Charter, Art. 52; G.-A. Beaudoin, « Le contrôle judiciaire de la constitutionnalité des lo (...)
18The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms31 and the Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms32 establish a series of rights and freedoms. By virtue of these fundamental texts, the courts may review the constitutionality of legislation and declare contested provisions inoperative33.
- 34 L.-P. Lampron and L. LeBel, « Le droit européen des droits de la personne et la Cour suprême du Can (...)
19To define the content of these guarantees, the international sources of human rights protection can then serve as inspiration, regardless of whether they have binding force. In this respect, the case law of the European Court of Human Rights constitutes a persuasive source for the Supreme Court of Canada34 when interpreting the Canadian Charter.
- 35 ECHR, Art. 2 and 8; G. de Lassus St-Geniès, « Changements climatiques », op. cit., § 19. In additio (...)
- 36 Ibid. E. Stein and A. Geert Castermans, « Case Comment - Urgenda v. The State of the Netherlands: T (...)
20Now, an environmentalist reading of certain provisions of the ECHR has come to the fore, including the right to life and the right to respect for private life, both of which have been invoked in several climate cases35. Judge’s interpretations of these guarantees imply an obligation on the part of the state to prevent the dangers posed by climate change36.
- 37 Environnement Jeunesse v. Attorney General of Canada, 2021 QCCA 1871, § 9. The right to life and th (...)
- 38 Environnement Jeunesse v. Attorney General of Canada, 2021 QCCA 1871, op. cit., § 25.
21It is therefore hardly surprising that ENJEU pleaded that the Canadian government’s inaction constituted an illegal and intentional violation of the right to life and the right to equality protected by both the Canadian Charter and the Quebec Charter37. Neverthless, this argument proved ineffective. The Court of Appeal ruled that it was impossible for it to exercise a constitutionality review when the State has not passed any specific laws to tackle the issues of the climate crisis38.
- 39 Ibid.
- 40 Ibid., § 32 and 42.
22Reviewing the constitutionality of the legislature’s inaction, rather than its positive action seems highly problematic39 in the eyes of the magistrates. Indeed, reproaching the government for its inaction necessarily amounts to dictating to it that it must pass laws or take measures to reduce GHG emissions to meet its international commitments40.
- 41 Ibid., § 29. See also G. de Lassus St-Geniès, « Rendez-vous au tribunal ! Où en sommes-nous avec le (...)
- 42 Environnement Jeunesse v. Attorney General of Canada, 2021 QCCA 1871, op. cit., § 29 and 40; G. de (...)
23Now, the judicial authorities cannot interfere with political decisions on climate matters or force the government to translate them into legislative statements41. In the absence of a law establishing the State’s climate ambitions and obligations, any cause of action seeking to compel the government assume its responsabilities in the fight against the climate change represents, ultimately, a matter that is not justiciable42.
II – The opportunity offered by labour law against polluting employers
24In contrast to the difficulties encountered in the ENJEU climate case brought against the government, labour law in both Canadian and Quebec has proved to be very open to international law, giving it an indirect effect in the employment relationship (A). These sources can, in turn, throw light on the rights and freedoms granted to workers by the Charters. In this regard, labour law constitutes a powerful vector for protecting fundamental rights, which allows the employer’s actions and decisions to be scrutinised on this basis (B).
A – Indirect application of international law in the employment relationship
- 43 C. Emanuelli, Droit international public : contribution à l’étude du droit international selon une (...)
- 44 Quebec (Attorney General) v. 9147-0732 Québec inc., 2020 CSC 32, § 25, 31-34; P.-A. Côté, with the (...)
- 45 The presumption of compliance of the laws with Canada’s commitments on the international stage come (...)
- 46 Justice Dickson’s position ultimately won over the majority of the Supreme Court, to the point of b (...)
- 47 Health Services and Support - Facilities Subsector Bargaining Assn. v. British Columbia, op. cit., (...)
25Although the international conventions do not have direct effect in Canadian law, the courts have attempted to give them an indirect effect43 by establishing a presumption that laws should comply with the international standards that are binding on Canada44. This rule of interpretation was originally framed in a labour law dispute45 and has been widely relied upon in this area46. It implies that « the Charter should be presumed to provide at least as great a level of protection as is found in the international human rights documents that Canada has ratified »47.
- 48 The Court uses the expression « obligation of residence » and not « obligation of domicile ». The r (...)
- 49 Godbout v. Longueuil (City), [1997] 3 SCR 844, p. 895.
26For example, in a 1997 case, where an obligation of residence48 imposed by an employer was being challenged, the reference to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) strengthened the position taken by the Supreme Court, which interpreted the right to a private life under Quebec Charter as including the employee’s right to choose where they live49.
- 50 3 January 1976, (1976) 999 UNTC. 3.
- 51 23 March 1972, 68 UNTC 17.
- 52 Health Services and Support - Facilities Subsector Bargaining Assn. v. British Columbia, op. cit., (...)
- 53 Saskatchewan Federation of Labour v. Saskatchewan, op. cit., § 63-71. The Court also refers to the (...)
27In a similar manner, to define the scope of workers’ freedom of association within the meaning of the Canadian Charter, the Court relied on the ICCPR and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights50 (ICESCR), as well as Convention no. 87 on Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise51 of the International Labour Organisation (ILO). These international texts ratified by Canada have constitutionalized the right to collective bargaining52 and the right to strike53 by including them among the components protected by freedom of association.
- 54 M. Coutu, L. L. Fontaine, G. Marceau, U. Coiquaud et J. Bourgault, Droit des rapports collectifs du (...)
28As we can see, the Supreme Court has drawn inspiration from Canada’s binding obligations under international law to expand the scope of the fundamental rights in the context of labour relations and to improve workers’ protection54.
- 55 M. Minnesma, « The Urgenda case in the Netherlands: creating a revolution through the courts », op. (...)
29In doing so, the content of the Paris Agreement and the scope of the fundamental rights relied upon in climate disputes, the equivalent of which is to be found in the ICCPR, could thus be indirectly received in labour law disputes to identify new rights for workers and clarify the employer’s obligations in the face of the environmental degradation. Moreover, it is the reflex effect of international law on the open-textured standards making up the law of other national jurisdictions that has made possible to impose binding GHS reduction targets to be imposed on the State and companies55.
- 56 Quebec (Attorney General) v. 9147-0732 Quebec inc., op. cit., § 35.
- 57 Saskatchewan Federation of Labour v. Saskatchewan, op. cit., § 62 and 67; Health Services and Suppo (...)
30Non-binding international sources have also guided the Canadian courts in interpreting workers’ freedoms, acting as « relevant and persuasive, but not determinative, interpretive tools »56. In the above-mentioned examples relating to freedom of association, the Supreme Court of Canada has referred to decisions of the Committee on Freedom of Association, the Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations of the International Labour Office (ILO) and the Commission of Inquiry of the ILO to identify a consensus at international level on the disputed issue57.
- 58 Saskatchewan Federation of Labour v. Saskatchewan, op. cit., § 71.
- 59 This was the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health: Quebec (Commission (...)
31In addition, senior judges drew on the interpretation of the ECHR used by the European Court of Human Rights to support their reasoning and thus recognised that the right to strike had to be included within the content protected by the constitutional freedom of association58. Canada’s highest court has also interpreted the notion of handicap, which is among the grounds of discrimination prohibited by the Quebec Charter, in the light of the non-binding instruments emanating from the World Health Organisation (WHO)59.
- 60 S. Thériault and D. Robitaille, « Les droits environnementaux dans la Charte des droits et libertés (...)
32In terms of texts that are not binding on Canada, it is therefore not excessive to suggest that developments in jurisprudence in the climate cases relating to the scope of Articles 2 and 8 ECHR might enlighten the courts in their interpretation of workers’ fundamental rights60.
- 61 Soft law concerning corporate social responsibility has played a decisive role in establishing a ta (...)
33Along the same lines, they could also draw on soft law instruments encouraging companies and the employers worldwide to prevent the negative impacts of their activities on human rights, to include environmental considerations in their policies and to reduced their environmental footprint, such as the United Nations United Nations Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises and the ILO Guidelines for a just transition towards environmentally sustainable economies and societies for all61.
34Ultimately, both the interpretation of domestic law in line with the various international agreements binding Canada and the influence of the persuasive sources formed by the above-mentioned non-binding instruments, support the indirect application of international law on human rights and climate change to the employment relationship. All of these sources constitute an international consensus on the need to take immediate action to curb global warming, including by non-State actors such as employers.
B – Control over employers’ decisions based on human rights and their general duty of protection
- 62 J.-M. Verdier, « En guise de manifeste : le droit du travail, terre d’élection pour les droits de l (...)
- 63 Quebec Charter, Art. 52.
- 64 C. Brunelle, M. Coutu and G. Trudeau, « La constitutionnalisation du droit du travail : un nouveau (...)
35Labour law is undoubtedly the area of the law in which the most progress has been made in implementing rights and freedoms within companies. As Jean-Maurice Verdier has said, labour law represents the « chosen land for human rights »62. The quasi-constitutional status63 of the Quebec Charter enables employees to assert their rights and freedoms against management64.
- 65 R. P. Gagnon, Le droit du travail du Québec, Montréal, 8th ed., edited by Y. Bernard and A. Sassevi (...)
- 66 Société des casinos du Québec inc. v. Tribunal administratif du travail, 2018 QCCS 4781, § 192.
- 67 Ibid., § 4, 192, 193 and 232.
36Insofar as Quebec is the only province to have a Charter of Rights based on the constitutional model, but whose scope extends to the relations between private actors65, the Superior Court of Quebec recently observed that workers in Quebec benefit from an advantage over those in other Canadian provinces66. Employees can directly bring legal action against the employer if their human rights are violated, just as citizens can do against the State67.
- 68 Syndicat de la fonction publique du Québec v. Quebec (Attorney General) 2010 SC 28, § 39, 41 and 44
- 69 G. Vallée, « La multiplication des normes et des recours en droit du travail : vers un droit du tra (...)
- 70 M. Coutu, « La Charte des droits et libertés de la personne vue sous l’angle du droit du travail », (...)
37Givin the hierarchy of sources in labour law68, all the standards that make up labour law, including the employer’s management rights, are subject to full respect for the employee’s rights and freedoms69, « without it being necessary to refer to state policy »70 or to any legislative system whatsoever.
- 71 G. Vallée and J. Bourgault, « Droits de direction », in P. Jalette, M. Laroche and G. Trudeau (dir. (...)
38Management rights also include aspects of the employer’ control of the company that go beyond the supervision of work, to cover business and production71. It follows that the company’s strategic decisions, the choice of production methods and the organisation of work must in no way interfere with the rights and freedoms of workers.
- 72 Parry Sound (District) Social Services Administration Board v. O.P.S.E.U., Local 324, 2003 SCC 42, (...)
- 73 Ibid., § 23 and 32. See also G. Grenier, L. Lavoie and M.-P. Bujold Boutin, « Les droits de la dire (...)
39Despite the lack of a specific law defining the obligation of employers in the fight against climate change, the competence given to labour judges to control the exercise of management rights would preclude us from concluding here that the legal action is not justiciable. As the employer’s authority is most certainly not sovereign, labour judges owe it no deference because, as the country’s highest court has asserted, « the broad rights of an employer to manage the enterprise and direct the workforce are subject »72 to human rights legislation and employment-related statutes73.
40Consequently, the discharge of a contaminant that is harmful to the health of the workers living in the vicinity of the plant, or deficient and irresponsible management of the GHGs emitted by the production activities, or the use of manufacturing processes and production methods that are energy-intensive and/or polluting, are all examples of management rights that are liable to be challenged by employees on the grounds that they violate their fundamental rights. In fact, any polluting practices of the employer that violate or could violate the rights granted by the Quebec
- 74 Quebec Charter, Art. 1.
- 75 Ibid., Art. 4.
- 76 Ibid., Art. 5.
- 77 Ibid., Art. 10.
41Charter to employees, like the right to life, and to personal security, inviolability and freedom74, the right to dignity75, the right to privacy76, and the right to equality77, can be challenged.
- 78 Ibid., Art. 46.
- 79 Ibid., Art. 46.1. See the analysis of S. Thériault and D. Robitaille, « Les droits environnementaux (...)
42Furthermore, these fundamental rights could be interpreted in the light of the economic and social rights, such as the right to fair and reasonable conditions of employment, which have proper regard for the health, safety and physical well-being of every person78, and the right to live in a healthful environment in which biodiversity is preserved79.
- 80 Québec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse) v. Maksteel Québec inc., (...)
- 81 Québec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse) v. Boisbriand (City), op (...)
43Lastly, is should be remembered, that the human rights protected by the Quebec Charter must be interpreted broadly and liberally80, in accordance with the international agreements to which Canada is bound81.
- 82 J.-P. Villaggi, La protection des travailleurs : l’obligation générale de l’employeur, Cowansville, (...)
44The idea of undertaking climate litigation using the labour laws, on the basis of a violation of human rights, thus offers the advantage of targeting specific employer practices that are damaging to the environment and present an increased risk to the well-being of employees. With regard to the proof of damage, which is sometimes difficult to overcome when it arises from the emission of GHGs or acts contributing to global warming, it should be borne in mind that the employer has a general obligation of protection under employment laws82.
- 83 Civil Code of Quebec, Art. 2087; Occupational Health and Safety Act, CQLR c. S-2.1, Art. 51; Act re (...)
45Indeed, labour law requires the employer to act in a preventive manner to ensure that the productive activity and the working environment do not cause harm to the health, safety and physical or mental well-being of workers, as well as their dignity83.
- 84 S. Thériault and D. Robitaille, « Les droits environnementaux dans la Charte des droits et libertés (...)
- 85 L. d’Ambrosio, « Face à l’urgence écologique : les promesses de la corporate due diligence », Revue (...)
- 86 Quebec Charter, Art. 49 ; Québec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse (...)
46A parallel can be drawn between this duty of prevention and the « precautionary principle »84 or « duty of care »85, often invoked in climate disputes. Moreover, the remedies in the event of a violation of rights and freedoms call for a great deal of flexibility and creativity on the part of the courts86.
Conclusion
- 87 D. Doorey, « Just Transitions Law: Putting Labour Law to Work on Climate Change », op. cit., p. 226
- 88 J.-Y. Brière, F. Morin, D. Roux and J.-P. Villaggi, Le droit de l’emploi au Québec, op. cit., no. I (...)
47Given the failure of climate lawsuits to demand positive intervention by the State to curb global warming, and knowing that significant share of GHGs are emitted by large corporations87, labour law offers a different way to tackle corporate policies that are harmful to the environment and the climate. This component of social law has long imposed a number of constraints on employers in managing their businesses88.
48The rejection of the climate lawsuits brought against the government is irrelevant to employment litigation. Workers can turn to the courts to ensure that the employers’ decisions and actions respect their fundamental rights and freedoms, which must be interpreted in compliance with Canada’s international obligations on climate change and in the light of the international consensus on the role to be played by corporations. Hence, labour law provides an opening for climate litigation and offers a powerful lever to challenge the employer’s polluting business practices, which in return affect the lives of workers.
- 89 A. Aragão, « L’innovation juridique-écologique pour réagir à l’urgence écologique », Revue juridiqu (...)
49In this respect, it seems to us that « legal innovation is one of the most promising tools that will be able to contribute to the efforts to overcome the ecological crisis »89. Since the problem is sufficiently serious and all-encompassing, the contribution of each area of law deserves to be considered.
- 90 We take our inspiration here from a phrase used by the House of Commons Environmental Audit Committ (...)
50The future of labour law may well be different from the one we know today if climate justice is integrated into it. Neglecting to do so, however, would mean that work and its legal framework are likely to change radically under the effects of climate change90. One thing is certain: at the current pace at which natural disasters are occurring, salaried work will not be able to survive if humans are gone!
Notes
1 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2023 - Synthesis Report. Summary for Policymakers (AR6), March 2023, p. 22.
2 Government of Quebec, « Impacts des changements climatiques »: https://www.quebec.ca/gouvernement/politiques-orientations/plan-economie-verte/actions-lutter-contre-changements-climatiques
3 The State of the Netherlands v. Stichting Urgenda, ECLI:NL:HR:2019:2007. See C. Eckes, « Tackling the Climate Crisis with Counter-majoritarian Instruments: Judges Between Political Paralysis, Science, and International Law », European Papers, vol. 6, no. 3, 2021, p. 1309.
4 This ruling by The Hague District Court was appealed: Milieudefensie v. Royal Dutch Shell, ECLI:NL:RBDHA:2021:5339.
5 G. de Lassus St-Geniès, « Changements climatiques », JurisClasseur Québec, Droit de l’environnement, fasc. 21, coll. « Droit public », Montréal, LexisNexis Canada, up to date on 1 November 2021, § 11.
6 M. Minnesma, « The Urgenda case in the Netherlands: creating a revolution through the courts », in C. Henry, J. Rockström and N. Stern (dir.), Standing up for a Sustainable World, Cheltenham, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2020, p. 141. These climate lawsuits are categorised as strategic litigation, that is to say that the applicants « intend to stimulate the development of climate change law » by a combination of standards existing at both national and international levels: G. de Lassus St-Geniès, « Changements climatiques », op. cit., § 11.
7 S. Lavallée and E. Agossou, « L’émergence des actions climatiques au Canada à l’ère de l’Accord de Paris », Revue juridique de l’environnement, vol. 45, no. 3, 2020, p. 503.
8 Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, 4 November 1950, S.T.E., no. 5.
9 9 May 1992, 1771 UNTC 107.
10 Off. Doc. UNFCCC, 21st sess., annex UN doc. FCCC/CP/2015/10/Add.1 (2016) 23.
11 C. Eckes, « Tackling the Climate Crisis with Counter-majoritarian Instruments: Judges Between Political Paralysis, Science, and International Law », op. cit., p. 1313; L. Burgers, « Should Judges Make Climate Change Law? », Transnational Environmental Law, vol. 9, no. 1, 2020, p. 57.
12 Environnement Jeunesse v. Attorney General of Canada, 2019 QCCS 2885, § 135. A class action is a procedural tool allowing a litigant to bring proceedings to represent a group of persons of which they are a part. However, the class action was not an appropriate procedural vehicle in the ENJEU case. Indeed, a single application by one person would have led to the same result since the orders sought against the government would necessarily have had an erga omnes effect: Environnement Jeunesse v. Attorney General of Canada, 2019 QCCS 2885, op. cit., § 141- 144.
13 Environnement Jeunesse v. Attorney General of Canada, 2021 QCCA 1871.
14 Environnement Jeunesse v. Attorney General of Canada, 2022 CanLII 67615 (CSC).
15 C. Lipsig-Mummé, D. Lafleur and G. Bickerton, « Climate Change and Canadian Unions: The Dilemma for Labour », Work in a Warming World, working paper no. 2, 2013.
16 D. Doorey, « Just Transitions Law: Putting Labour Law to Work on Climate Change », Journal of Environmental Law and Practice, vol. 30, no. 2, 2017.
17 G. de Lassus St-Geniès, « Changements climatiques », op. cit., § 20 (author’s translation).
18 Quebec acceded by Decree: Decree no. 1669-92 for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, (1992) 124 G.O. 2, 7230.
19 UNFCCC, § 4.2a).
20 Paris Agreement, Art. 4.1.
21 Ibid., Art. 2.1a) and 4.1.
22 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, 2021 SCC 11, § 174.
23 After the ENJEU judgment, the federal government passed the Canadian Net-Zero Emissions Accountability Act (S.C. 2021, c. 22), which translates Canada’s commitments under the Paris Agreement and whose sole national target in terms of GHG emissions is to achieve net zero emissions by 2050.
24 Environnement Jeunesse v. Attorney General of Canada, 2021 QCCA 1871, op. cit., § 6.
25 Ibid., § 5.
26 Ibid., §7 (author’s translation).
27 Environnement Jeunesse v. Attorney General of Canada, op. cit., § 2.
28 Ibid., § 34.
29 Turp v. Canada (Justice), 2012 FC 893.
30 Kazemi Estate v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 2014 SCC 62, § 149; Operation Dismantle v. The Queen, [1985] 1 SCR 441, p. 484; C. Emanuelli, Droit international public : contribution à l’étude du droit international selon une perspective canadienne, Montreal, 3rd ed., Éd. Wilson & Lafleur, 2010, § 326 and 334. Mandatory or customary rules nevertheless have a direct effect in Canadian law.
31 Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982 [Schedule B to the Canada Act 1982 (UK), 1982, c 11] (hereinafter « Canadian Charter »).
32 CQLR, c C-12.1, (hereinafter the “Quebec Charter”). This is a provincial law with a quasi-constitutional status, unlike the Canadian Charter which is part of the Constitution of Canada and therefore enjoys constitutional status. The Canadian Charter only covers relations between the State and the citizen, whereas the Quebec Charter also extends to relations between individuals.
33 Canadian Charter, Art. 52; G.-A. Beaudoin, « Le contrôle judiciaire de la constitutionnalité des lois », R.D. McGill, vol. 48, no. 2, 2003, p. 325. This means that the provision is cancelled by the court and therefore withdrawn from the law.
34 L.-P. Lampron and L. LeBel, « Le droit européen des droits de la personne et la Cour suprême du Canada : une perspective canadienne », Revue québécoise de droit international, special issue, 2020, p. 611.
35 ECHR, Art. 2 and 8; G. de Lassus St-Geniès, « Changements climatiques », op. cit., § 19. In addition, the protection of these rights by Art. 6 and 17 of the ICCPR constitutes an alternative source in countries that are not parties to the ECHR: A. Schapper, « Climate justice and human rights », International Relations, vol. 32, no. 3, 2018, p. 279.
36 Ibid. E. Stein and A. Geert Castermans, « Case Comment - Urgenda v. The State of the Netherlands: The “Reflex Effect” - Climate Change, Human Rights, and the Expanding Definitions of the Duty of Care », McGill International Journal of Sustainable Development Law and Policy, vol. 13, no. 2, 2017, p. 313. See as an example: Urgenda, § 7.5.1. The protection of rights and freedoms encompasses infringements caused by damage to the environment: UN Special Rapporteur on human rights and the environment, Safe Climate Report, A/74/161, Geneva, 1 October 2019, p. 20.
37 Environnement Jeunesse v. Attorney General of Canada, 2021 QCCA 1871, § 9. The right to life and the security of the person is guaranteed by Art. 7 of the Canadian Charter and Art. 1 of the Quebec Charter. The alleged breach of the equality enshrined in Art. 15 of the Canadian Charter and Art. 10 of the Quebec Charter rests on the idea that young generations will suffer heavier economic and social consequences as a result of climate change.
38 Environnement Jeunesse v. Attorney General of Canada, 2021 QCCA 1871, op. cit., § 25.
39 Ibid.
40 Ibid., § 32 and 42.
41 Ibid., § 29. See also G. de Lassus St-Geniès, « Rendez-vous au tribunal ! Où en sommes-nous avec les procès climatiques contre les gouvernements au Canada? », Le Climatoscope, no. 4, 2022, p. 56.
42 Environnement Jeunesse v. Attorney General of Canada, 2021 QCCA 1871, op. cit., § 29 and 40; G. de Lassus St-Geniès, « Rendez-vous au tribunal ! Où en sommes-nous avec les procès climatiques contre les gouvernements au Canada? », op. cit., p. 56; S. Lavallée and E. Agossou, « L’émergence des actions climatiques au Canada à l’ère de l’Accord de Paris », op. cit., p. 504.
43 C. Emanuelli, Droit international public : contribution à l’étude du droit international selon une perspective canadienne, op. cit., § 335.
44 Quebec (Attorney General) v. 9147-0732 Québec inc., 2020 CSC 32, § 25, 31-34; P.-A. Côté, with the collaboration of S. Beaulac and M. Devinat, Interprétation des lois, Montréal, 4th ed., Éd. Thémis, 2009, p. 431.
45 The presumption of compliance of the laws with Canada’s commitments on the international stage comes from a dissenting opinion of Chief Justice Dickson in a 1987 judgment: Reference Re Public Service Employee Relations Act (Alta.), [1987] 1 SCR. 313, p. 348.
46 Justice Dickson’s position ultimately won over the majority of the Supreme Court, to the point of becoming a « magnetic point of reference in the last few years » : Saskatchewan Federation of Labour v. Saskatchewan, 2015 SCC 4, § 63-71. See other examples: Health Services and Support - Facilities Subsector Bargaining Assn. v. British Columbia, 2007 SCC 27, § 69-79; Slaight Communications Inc. v. Davidson, [1989] 1 SCR. 1038, p. 1056.
47 Health Services and Support - Facilities Subsector Bargaining Assn. v. British Columbia, op. cit., § 70.
48 The Court uses the expression « obligation of residence » and not « obligation of domicile ». The residence of a person is where they ordinarily reside, while a person’s domicile is, for the exercise of their civil rights, the place of their principal establishment, among the various residences that they may possess: Civil Code of Quebec, CQLR c CCQ-1991, Art. 75 and 77.
49 Godbout v. Longueuil (City), [1997] 3 SCR 844, p. 895.
50 3 January 1976, (1976) 999 UNTC. 3.
51 23 March 1972, 68 UNTC 17.
52 Health Services and Support - Facilities Subsector Bargaining Assn. v. British Columbia, op. cit., § 69-79.
53 Saskatchewan Federation of Labour v. Saskatchewan, op. cit., § 63-71. The Court also refers to the Charter of the Organization of American States, 8 January 1990, Can. T.S. 1990, no. 23.
54 M. Coutu, L. L. Fontaine, G. Marceau, U. Coiquaud et J. Bourgault, Droit des rapports collectifs du travail au Québec, Montréal, Éd. Yvon Blais, 3rd ed., vol. 1, 2019, p. 45; P. Verge and D. Roux, « L’affirmation des principes de la liberté syndicale, de la négociation collective et du droit de grève selon le droit international et le droit du travail canadien : deux solitudes ? », in Développements récents en droit du travail (2011), Service de la formation continue du Barreau du Québec (Continuing Education Department of the Quebec Bar), Cowansville, Éd. Yvon Blais, vol. 333, 2011, p. 150.
55 M. Minnesma, « The Urgenda case in the Netherlands: creating a revolution through the courts », op. cit., p. 144; C. Macchi and J. van Zeben, « Business and human rights implications of climate change litigation: Milieudefensie et al. v. Royal Dutch Shell », Review of European Comparative & International Environmental Law, vol. 30, no. 3, 2021, p. 409.
56 Quebec (Attorney General) v. 9147-0732 Quebec inc., op. cit., § 35.
57 Saskatchewan Federation of Labour v. Saskatchewan, op. cit., § 62 and 67; Health Services and Support - Facilities Subsector Bargaining Assn. v. British Colombia. cit., § 76 and 78. See also M. Coutu et al., Droit des rapports collectifs du travail au Québec, op. cit., p. 175.
58 Saskatchewan Federation of Labour v. Saskatchewan, op. cit., § 71.
59 This was the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health: Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse) v. Montréal (City); Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse) v. Boisbriand (City), 2000 SCC 27, §72-75.
60 S. Thériault and D. Robitaille, « Les droits environnementaux dans la Charte des droits et libertés de la personne du Québec : pistes de réflexion », RD McGill, vol. 57, no. 2, 2011, p. 247.
61 Soft law concerning corporate social responsibility has played a decisive role in establishing a target for a reduction in GHS emissions in a private company: Milieudefensie v. Royal Dutch Shell, § 4.4.11, 4.4.13 and 4.4.14 ; C. Macchi and J. van Zeben, « Business and human rights implications of climate change litigation: Milieudefensie et al. v Royal Dutch Shell », op. cit., p. 410.
62 J.-M. Verdier, « En guise de manifeste : le droit du travail, terre d’élection pour les droits de l’homme », in P. Couvrat (dir.), Les orientations sociales du droit contemporain : écrits en l’honneur du Professeur Jean Savatier, Paris, PUF, 1992, p. 427.
63 Quebec Charter, Art. 52.
64 C. Brunelle, M. Coutu and G. Trudeau, « La constitutionnalisation du droit du travail : un nouveau paradigme », Cahiers de droit, vol. 48, 2007, p. 13; D. Nadeau, « La Charte des droits et libertés de la personne et le droit du travail au Québec : naissance d’un “nouveau salarié” dans un droit en mutation », Revue du Barreau, vol. 66.5, 2006, p. 401.
65 R. P. Gagnon, Le droit du travail du Québec, Montréal, 8th ed., edited by Y. Bernard and A. Sasseville, Éd. Yvon Blais, 2022, p. 31.
66 Société des casinos du Québec inc. v. Tribunal administratif du travail, 2018 QCCS 4781, § 192.
67 Ibid., § 4, 192, 193 and 232.
68 Syndicat de la fonction publique du Québec v. Quebec (Attorney General) 2010 SC 28, § 39, 41 and 44.
69 G. Vallée, « La multiplication des normes et des recours en droit du travail : vers un droit du travail unifié ? », in D. Gesualdi-Fecteau and L. Lamarche (dir.), La multiplication des normes et des recours en droit du travail : quelles conséquences pour la mobilisation ?, Cowansville, Éd. Yvon Blais, 2016, p. 31; J.-Y. Brière, F. Morin, D. Roux and J.-P. Villaggi, Le droit de l’emploi au Québec, Montréal, 4th ed., Éd. Wilson & Lafleur, 2010, no. I-32 and III-103; C. Brunelle, M. Coutu and G. Trudeau, « La constitutionnalisation du droit du travail : un nouveau paradigme », op. cit., p. 39.
70 M. Coutu, « La Charte des droits et libertés de la personne vue sous l’angle du droit du travail », Revue québécoise de droit international, special issue, 2015, p. 190 (author’s translation). See also M. Coutu et al., Droit des rapports collectifs du travail au Québec, op. cit., p. 28.
71 G. Vallée and J. Bourgault, « Droits de direction », in P. Jalette, M. Laroche and G. Trudeau (dir.), La convention collective au Québec, Montréal, Chenelière éducation, 3rd ed., 2018, p. 91; G. Grenier, L. Lavoie and M.-P. Bujold Boutin, « Les droits de la direction », in Service de la formation continue du Barreau du Québec (Continuing Education Department), Développements récents en droit du travail en éducation (2018), Montréal, Éd. Yvon Blais, vol. 448, 2018, p. 90.
72 Parry Sound (District) Social Services Administration Board v. O.P.S.E.U., Local 324, 2003 SCC 42, § 23.
73 Ibid., § 23 and 32. See also G. Grenier, L. Lavoie and M.-P. Bujold Boutin, « Les droits de la direction », op. cit., p. 96.
74 Quebec Charter, Art. 1.
75 Ibid., Art. 4.
76 Ibid., Art. 5.
77 Ibid., Art. 10.
78 Ibid., Art. 46.
79 Ibid., Art. 46.1. See the analysis of S. Thériault and D. Robitaille, « Les droits environnementaux dans la Charte des droits et libertés de la personne du Québec : pistes de réflexion », op. cit., p. 216.
80 Québec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse) v. Maksteel Québec inc., 2003 CSC 68, §10; Québec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse) v. Boisbriand (City), op. cit., § 28 et 29.
81 Québec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse) v. Boisbriand (City), op. cit., § 72-75 ; Godbout v. Longueuil (City), op. cit., p. 895.
82 J.-P. Villaggi, La protection des travailleurs : l’obligation générale de l’employeur, Cowansville, Éd. Yvon Blais, 1996, p. 4.
83 Civil Code of Quebec, Art. 2087; Occupational Health and Safety Act, CQLR c. S-2.1, Art. 51; Act respecting labour standards, CQLR c. N-1.1, Art. 81.19.
84 S. Thériault and D. Robitaille, « Les droits environnementaux dans la Charte des droits et libertés de la personne du Québec : pistes de réflexion », op. cit., p. 223.
85 L. d’Ambrosio, « Face à l’urgence écologique : les promesses de la corporate due diligence », Revue juridique de l’environnement, special issue, 2022, p. 203.
86 Quebec Charter, Art. 49 ; Québec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse) v. Communauté urbaine de Montréal, [2004] 1 SCR 789, § 26.
87 D. Doorey, « Just Transitions Law: Putting Labour Law to Work on Climate Change », op. cit., p. 226.
88 J.-Y. Brière, F. Morin, D. Roux and J.-P. Villaggi, Le droit de l’emploi au Québec, op. cit., no. II-39, II-127 and VI-2.
89 A. Aragão, « L’innovation juridique-écologique pour réagir à l’urgence écologique », Revue juridique de l’environnement, special issue, 2022, p. 81 (author’s translation).
90 We take our inspiration here from a phrase used by the House of Commons Environmental Audit Committee in the UK: House of Commons, Environmental Audit Committee, UK Export Finance, (House of Lords 2019), 19th Report of Session, 2017-19, HC 1804, London, 2019, § 97.
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Sébastien Parent, « Hope for Climate Justice in Labour Law in Quebec », Revue de droit comparé du travail et de la sécurité sociale [En ligne], 4 | 2023, mis en ligne le 31 décembre 2024, consulté le 17 mai 2025. URL : http://journals.openedition.org/rdctss/6746 ; DOI : https://doi.org/10.4000/rdctss.6746
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