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Notes
HM government, “Global Britain in a Competitive Age: the Integrated Review of Security, Defence, Development and Foreign Policy”, CP 403, March 2021, p. 9, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/60644e4bd3bf7f0c91eababd/Global_Britain_in_a_Competitive_Age-_the_Integrated_Review_of_Security__Defence__Development_and_Foreign_Policy.pdf, consulted on 20 December 2023.
House of Lords, Select Committee on Soft Power and the UK’s Influence, Persuasion and Power in the Modern World (London, HMSO, March 2014), https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201314/ldselect/ldsoftpower/150/15003.htm, consulted on 20 December 2023.
Joseph Nye, Bound To Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power (Basic Books, New York, 1990); and Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics (New York, PublicAffairs, 2004).
Joseph Nye, Evidence Session no. 10, Unrevised transcript of evidence taken before The Select Committee on Soft Power and the UK’s influence, 15 October 2013, https://www.parliament.uk/globalassets/documents/lords-committees/soft-power-uk-influence/uc151013Ev10.pdf, consulted on 24 January 2024.
Tim Summers, “Limited appeal: China’s soft power in the United Kingdom” in Ties Dams, Xiaoxue Martin and Vera Kranenburg, China’s Soft Power in Europe: Falling on Hard Times (Den Haag, The Netherlands Institute of International Relations / Clingendael Institute, 2021).
Tim Summers, “Britain and Hong Kong: the 2019 protests and their aftermath”, Asian Education and Development Studies 11:2, 2021, pp. 276-286. The decision to grant right of abode was taken in July 2020: HM Government, “UK to Extend Residence Rights for British National (Overseas) Citizens in Hong Kong”, 1 July 2020, https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-to-extend-residence-rights-for-british-nationals-overseas-citizens-in-hong-kong. The decision not to do business with Huawei was taken around the same time: HM Government, “Huawei to be Removed from UK 5G Networks by 2027”, 14 July 2020, https://www.gov.uk/government/news/huawei-to-be-removed-from-uk-5g-networks-by-2027, consulted 20 December 2023.
Cleo Paskal, “Indo-Pacific strategies, perceptions and partnerships: the UK and the Indo-Pacific”, Chatham House, 23 March 2021, https://www.chathamhouse.org/2021/03/indo-pacific-strategies-perceptions-and-partnerships/03-uk-and-indo-pacific, consulted 20 December 2023.
HM government, “Integrated Review Refresh 2023: Responding to a More Contested and Volatile World”, CP 811, March 2023, p. 13, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/641d72f45155a2000c6ad5d5/11857435_NS_IR_Refresh_2023_Supply_AllPages_Revision_7_WEB_PDF.pdf, consulted on 20 December 2023.
Ibid., p. 3.
Irene S. Wu, “Tools for measuring soft power. A review of recent quantitative analyses” in Naren Chitty, Lilian Ji and Gary D. Rawnsley (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Soft Power (London, Routledge, 2023 [2016]), p. 70.
Gary Rawnsley, “Challenging the Snake-Oil Salesmen: A Critique of British Approaches to Soft Power”, Journal of International Communication 24:1, 2018, pp. 8, 4.
Laurence Badel and Pierre Singaravélou, “Le dialogue Asie-Europe en perspective (XIXe-XXe siècle)”, Relations Internationales 167:3, 2016.
Adrien Rodd and Sophie Croisy, special issue on “Oceania and the Pacific Rim”, Cultures of the Commonwealth 23, 2020.
Adrien Rodd, “The Pacific in the ‘Asian Century’”, Outre-Terre 58-59:1/2, 2020; see Adrien Rodd, “Oceania in the Face of Great Power Rivalries”, pp. 303-326; Annick Cizel, “The United States on the Move? Military ‘Enhanced Engagement’ at the Risk of Multipolarity in the Indo-Pacific Zone”, pp. 377-399.
Edmund Terence Gomez, Cheong Kee Cheok and Vamsi Vakulabharanam (eds.), “China, India and Southeast Asia: Paths to Development”, special issue of The Round Table: The Commonwealth Journal of International Affairs 105:6, 2016; Aakriti Tandon and Michael O. Slobodchikoff (eds.), “Security in South Asia”, special issue of The Round Table: The Commonwealth Journal of International Affairs 108:2, 2019.
Yuen Foong Khong, “Power as prestige in world politics”, International Affairs 95:1, 2019, pp. 138, 119.
Ajaya K. Sahoo (ed.), Routledge Handbook of Asian Transnationalism (London, Routledge, 2023); Jens Damm, Ondřej Klimeš, Jarmila Ptackova and Gary Rawnsley (eds.). Transnational Sites of China’s Cultural Diplomacy: Central Asia, Middle East, Southeast Asia and Europe Compared (Basingstoke, Palgrave, 2019); Barnaby Joseph Dye, “New convergence tilt in India’s South-South cooperation with Africa”, LSE Blog, 10 March 2022, https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/southasia/2022/03/10/new-convergence-tilt-in-indias-south-south-cooperation-with-africa/ (consulted 24 February 2023); Ross Anthony and Uta Ruppert (eds.), Reconfiguring transregionalisation in the Global South: African-Asian Encounters (Cham, Palgrave Macmillan, 2020). See also Gerard McCann, India and Africa – Old Friends, New Game (London, Zed Books, 1999).
See for example Thibaud Harrois, “Towards ‘Global Britain’? Theresa May and the UK’s Role in the World after Brexit”, Observatoire de la société britannique 21, 2018, pp. 51-73; Thibaud Harrois, “L’Integrated Review de 2021 : une stratégie tous azimuts au service d’une Global Britain à l’ambition vague”, Observatoire du Brexit, 25 May 2021; Oliver Daddow, “Brexit and Britain’s Role in the World” in Patrick Diamond, Peter Nedergaard and Ben Rosamond (eds.), Routledge Handbook of the Politics of Brexit (London, Routledge, 2018), pp. 208-222.
Jamie Gaskarth, “Global Britain in the Indo-Pacific”, special issue of the RUSI Journal 167:6-7, 2022.
See for instance Oliver Turner, “Global Britain and the Narrative of Empire”, The Political Quarterly 90:4, 2019, pp. 727-734.
For example, for Robert Saunders, “Global Britain” is rather rooted in a form of heroic vision of British past, not necessarily centred on its empire; Robert Saunders, “Brexit and Empire: ‘Global Britain’ and the myth of imperial nostalgia’’, The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 48:6, 2020, p. 21.
The scholarship on British expansion in Asia is very rich and would be impossible to reference exhaustively. Recent analyses include: Douglas M. Peers and Nadini Gooptu (eds.), India and the British Empire (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2012); Chris Nierstrasz, Rivalry for Trade in Tea and Textiles: The English and Dutch East India Companies (1700-1800) (Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2015); Gareth Knapman, Anthony Milner and Mary Quilty (eds.), Liberalism and the British Empire in Southeast Asia (New York, Routledge, 2019); Stan Neal, Singapore, Chinese Migration, and the Making of the British Empire, 1819-67 (Woodbridge, The Boydell Press, 2019); David Veevers, The Origins of the British Empire in Asia, 1600-1750 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2020).
Anthony Best (ed.), Britain’s Retreat from Empire in East Asia (London, Routledge, 2017), p. 1.
Burma was the world’s largest rice producer in the 1940s, and therefore used by the British as the region’s “rice basket”; Malaya was the world’s most important rubber producer, and its rubber and tin mining industries were very profitable to the British.
Best, Britain’s Retreat, pp. 1-2.
Brian P. Farrell, S.R. Joey Long and David J. Ulbrich (eds.), From Far East to Asia Pacific, Great Powers and Grand Strategy 1900-1954 (Oldenbourg, De Gruyter, 2022).
Philippe Pelletier, “Imaginer le nom d’Extrême-Orient”, La Géographie 1558:3, 2015, pp. 29-32.
Claire Sanderson, “La Grande-Bretagne et l’Asie du Sud-Est depuis 1945 : réalités, réajustements, retraits” in Pierre Journoud (ed.), L’évolution du débat stratégique en Asie du Sud-Est depuis 1945, Études de l’IRSEM 14, 2012, pp. 53-68, 57.
See for instance Peter Lowe, Contending with Nationalism and Communism: British Policy towards Southeast Asia, 1945-65 (Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2009) and Christopher E. Goscha et Christian F. Ostermann (eds.), Connecting Histories: Decolonization and the Cold War in Southeast Asia, 1945-1962 (Washington, D. C., Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2009).
Claire Sanderson, “La Grande-Bretagne et l’Asie du Sud-Est”, pp. 62-64.
Boris Johnson, “Britain is back East of Suez” speech, Bahrain, 9 December 2016, https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/foreign-secretary-speech-britain-is-back-east-of-suez, consulted 22 December 2023.
According to International Monetary Fund figures, India and China jointly contribute about half of world’s GDP growth in 2023-2024.
HM government, “Global Britain in a Competitive Age”, p. 26.
HM government, “Integrated Review Refresh 2023”, p. 2.
Department for Business and Trade, “UK signs treaty to join vast Indo-Pacific trade group as new data shows major economic benefits”, 16 July 2023, https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-9121/, consulted 20 December 2023.
HM government, “Integrated Review Refresh 2023”, p. 14.
Vanessa Alayrac-Fielding, La Chine dans l’imaginaire anglais des Lumières (1685-1798) (Paris, Presses de l’université Paris Sorbonne, 2015).
Henrietta Harrison, The Perils of Interpreting: The Extraordinary Lives of Two Translators between Qing China and the British Empire (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2023), p. 274.
Marine Bellégo, Enraciner l’empire : une autre histoire du jardin botanique de Calcutta (1860-1910) (Paris, Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, 2021).
Marie de Rugy, Imperial Borderlands. Maps and Territory-Building in the Northern Indochinese Peninsula (1885-1914) (Leiden, Brill, 2021); the book was first published in French as Aux confins des empires. Cartes et constructions territoriales dans le nord de la péninsule indochinoise, 1885-1914 (Paris, Éditions de la Sorbonne, 2018).
Christina Jialin Wu, Des scouts en Malaisie britannique. Une histoire de la mondialisation culturelle de la jeunesse (Paris, Presses de Sciences Po, 2024).
Chi-Kwan Mark, The Everyday Cold War: Britain and China, 1950-1972 (London, Bloomsbury, 2017).
This also comes out of other very recent and stimulating studies of colonial Asia, such as Vivian Kong, Multiracial Britishness: Global Networks in Hong Kong, 1910-1945 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2023).
Su Lin Lewis, “Skies That Bind: Air Travel in the Bandung Era” in Stephen Legg, Mike Hefferman, Jake Hodder and Benjamin J. Thorpe (eds.), Placing Internationalism. International Conferences and the Making of the Modern World (London, Bloomsbury, 2022), p. 234. See also Su Lin Lewis and Carolien Stolte, “Other Bandungs: Afro-Asian Internationalisms in the Early Cold War,” Journal of World History 30:1-2, 2019, pp. 1-19; and Christopher J. Lee (ed.), Making a World after Empire: the Bandung Moment and its Political Afterlives (Athens, Ohio, Ohio University Press, 2019).
Project: Afro-Asian Networks: Transitions in the Global South, “Visualisation” (collective research project supported by the Arts & Humanities Research Council, International Institute of Social History, University of Bristol, Universiteit Leiden) https://afroasiannetworks.com/visualisation/ consulted 20 February 2024.
Jeremy Adelman, “What is Global History?”, “What is global history now?” Aeon, 2 March 2017, https://aeon.co/essays/is-global-history-still-possible-or-has-it-had-its-moment, consulted 20 February 2024.
HM government, “2030 Roadmap for India-UK future relations”, 4 May 2021, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/india-uk-virtual-summit-may-2021-roadmap-2030-for-a-comprehensive-strategic-partnership/2030-roadmap-for-india-uk-future-relations#contents, consulted 20 December 2023.
Ibid.
For instance, Peg Murray-Evans mentions Secretary of State for International Trade Liam Fox’s speech in 2017; Peg Murray-Evans, “Brexit and the Commonwealth: Fantasy Meets Reality” in Patrick Diamond et al., Routledge Handbook of the Politics of Brexit, pp. 197-207, 197.
Adrien Rodd, “British diplomatic re-engagement in the Pacific: more than just words?”, Contemporary British History 37:4, 2023, pp. 605-632.
HM government, “Integrated Review Refresh 2023”, p. 3.
See for instance Fred Pearce, “Why is Britain retreating from global leadership on climate action?”, YaleEnvironment360, 17 October 2023, https://e360.yale.edu/features/ungreening-britain-sunak-climate-change, last consulted 23 February 2024.
HM government, “Integrated Review Refresh 2023”, p. 14.
Thibaud Harrois, “L’Integrated Review de 2021”.
See for instance the special issue: Peter Clegg (ed.), “Brexit and the Commonwealth: What Next?”, The Round Table: The Commonwealth Journal of External Affairs 105: 5 (2016).
Mélanie Torrent, “Le Brexit au prisme du Commonwealth : vers une perte d’influence britannique ?”, Recherches Internationales 117, 2020, pp. 9-25.
Jamie Gaskarth, “Jamie Gaskarth on British Foreign Policy, Brexit, The Commonwealth, David Cameron and William Hague”, Thinking Global Podcast, E-International Relations, 18 December 2023, https://www.e-ir.info/2023/12/18/thinking-global-podcast-jamie-gaskarth, c. 20’, last consulted 25 February 2024.
See for instance Philip Taylor, British Propaganda in the Twentieth Century, Selling Democracy (Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 1999), p. 228.
See Shigeru Akita, Gerold Krozewski and Shoichi Watanabe (eds.), The Transformation of the International Order of Asia: Decolonization, the Cold War, and the Colombo Plan (Abingdon, Routledge, 2015).
In Evidence Session.
Rawnsley, “Challenging the Snake-Oil Salesmen”, p. 13.
See for instance Dimitrios Stroikos, “China and India as Rising Powers and the Militarisation of Space” in Thomas Hoerber and Iraklis Oikonomou (eds.), The Militarization of European Space Policy (London, Routledge, 2023).
Daya Thussu, “The Scramble for Asian Soft Power in Africa”, Les Enjeux de l’information et de la communication 17:2, 2016, pp. 225-237.
Mikael Weissman, “Capturing Power Shift in East Asia: Toward an Analytical Framework for Understanding ‘Soft Power’”, Asian Perspective 44:3, 2020, pp. 353-382.
See for instance Ole Jacob Sending, Vincent Pouliot and Iver B. Neumann (eds.), Diplomacy and the Making of World Politics (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2015).
Philip Murphy, “The contradictions of soft power and the Commonwealth: the case of the ‘British’ monarchy”, Conference on “Soft power in the contemporary Commonwealth: Approaches, opportunities and challenges”, Institute of Commonwealth Studies, 15 March 2023, https://www.sas.ac.uk/podcasts/soft-power-contemporary-commonwealth-approaches-opportunities-and-challenges, c. 25’, last consulted 24 February 2024.
Ian Hall and Frank Smith, “The Struggle for Soft Power in Asia: Public Diplomacy and Regional Competition”, Asian Security 9:1, 2013, pp. 1-18.
Carruthers, Susan, Winning Hearts and Minds: British Governments, the Media and Colonial Counter-Insurgency 1944-60 (Leicester, Leicester University Press, 1995).
Yasmin Khan, The Great Partition. The Making of India and Pakistan (Yale, Yale University Press, 2017, new ed.); Kavita Puri, Partition Voices. Untold British Stories (London, Bloomsbury, 2022 [2017]).
Paul Dixon, The British Approach to Counterinsurgency: From Malaya and Northern Ireland to Iraq and Afghanistan (London, Palgrave Macmillan, 2012); Martin Thomas and Gareth Curless (eds.), Decolonization and Conflict. Colonial Comparisons and Legacies (London, Bloomsbury, 2018).
See Brian Drohan, Brutality in an Age of Human Rights: Activism and Counterinsurgency at the End of the British Empire (Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 2018); and Erik Linstrum, Age of Emergency: Living with Violence at the End of the British Empire (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2023).
Rawnsley, “Challenging the Snake-Oil Men”, pp. 6, 3-4.
Ibid., pp. 1-2.
See for instance Sarah Stockwell, The British End of the British Empire (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2018); Stuart Ward and Astrid Rasch (eds.), Embers of Empire in Brexit Britain (London, Bloomsbury, 2019); and Berny Sèbe and Matthew G. Stanard (eds.), Decolonising Europe? Popular Responses to the End of Empire (London, Routledge, 2020).
See for instance Alan Lester, Deny and Disavow. The British Empire in the Culture War (London, SunRise Publishing, 2022); Charlotte Riley, Imperial Island. A History of Empire in Modern Britain (London, Penguin Books, 2023). And for opposing voices in the debate: Nigel Biggar, “On Colonialism: A Moral Reckoning: A Reply to Alan Lester”, The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 51:4 (2023), pp. 736-824.
Paul M. McGarr, “‘The Viceroys Are Disappearing from the Roundabouts in Delhi’: British Symbols of Power in Post-Colonial India”, Modern Asian Studies 49:3, 2015, pp. 787-831.
Rahul Rao, “Gandhi falling … and rising”, Journal of Historical Geography 82, 2023, pp. 1-10.
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