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Interviews
ASEAN member-state executive office official, Wednesday 2 March 2022.
ASEAN member-state foreign ministry official, Monday 25 April 2022.
Official involved in ASEAN negotiations, Friday 8 October 2022
Thai maritime security practitioner, Wednesday 12 October 2022.
Indonesian maritime security practitioner, Thursday 15 December 2022.
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Notes
We thank John Bradford, Jamie Gaskarth, Tim Edmunds, and Laura Southgate for their feedback on an earlier draft. We also thank the two peer reviewers for their insightful engagement. This research has benefitted from the University of Bristol’s SPAIS grant capture fund, the Research England Policy Support Fund, and the UK Economic and Social Research Council’s (ESRC) Partnership for Conflict, Crime and Security Research (PaCCS) ref. ES/S008810/1.
HM Government, Global Britain in a Competitive Age, the Integrated Review of Security, Defence, Development and Foreign Policy (London, Cabinet Office, 2021).
IR 2023 marks the tilt as “achieved”, with a target of making “this increased engagement stronger and enduring, and a permanent pillar of the UK’s international policy”. We continue to refer to the tilt throughout as a shorthand for this ongoing target. HM Government, Integrated Review Refresh. Responding to a More Contested and Volatile World (London, HM Stationery Office, 2023) https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/641d72f45155a2000c6ad5d5/11857435_NS_IR_Refresh_2023_Supply_AllPages_Revision_7_WEB_PDF.pdf consulted 1 June 2023.
House of Commons Foreign Affairs Committee, Refreshing our approach? Updating the Integrated Review (London, House of Commons, 2022).
HM Government, Integrated Review, 2023.
The language of bases is seen in domestic debates, while the discussion happening regionally concerns “access” for future maritime deployments.
Kai Oppermann, Ryan Beasley, and Juliet Kaarbo, “British foreign policy after Brexit: losing Europe and finding a role”, International Relations 34:2 (2019), p. 134.
See for example, John Bradford, “US Perspectives and Expectations Regarding The UK’s Tilt to The Indo-Pacific”, RUSI Journal 167:6/7 (2022), pp. 24-32.
Ibid.; Jamie Gaskarth “Strategy, Tactics and Tilts: A Networked Approach to UK influence in the Indo-Pacific”, RUSI Journal 167:6/7 (2022), pp. 12-23; Laura Southgate “UK-ASEAN Relations and the Balance of Power in Southeast Asia”, RUSI Journal 167:6/7 (2022), pp. 64-71.
See Marijke Breuning, “Role Theory in Politics and International Relations” in Alex Mintz, and Lesley Terris (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Behavioral Political Science (online edn, Oxford Academic, 10 July 2018).
Andrew Glencross and David McCourt, “Living Up to a New Role in the World: The Challenges of ‘Global Britain’” Orbis 62:4 (2018), pp. 582-597; Oppermann et al., British foreign policy.
Cristian Cantir and Juliet Kaarbo (eds), Domestic Role Contestation, Foreign Policy, and International Relations (New York and London, Routledge, 2016).
Oppermann et al., British foreign policy.
David McCourt, Britain and World Power since 1945: Constructing a Nation’s Role in International Politics (Michigan, University of Michigan Press, 2014).
Jamie Gaskarth, “Strategizing Britain's role in the world”, International Affairs 90:3 (2014), pp. 559-581; Oppermann et al., British foreign policy.
Based on Robert Yates, Understanding ASEAN’s Role in Asia-Pacific Order (Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2019).
The current focus has been on the UK’s material capacities or on domestic conflicts between different role conceptions, see for example Oppermann et al., British foreign policy.
Jamie Gaskarth and Nicola Langdon, “The dilemma of Brexit: hard choices in the narrow context of British foreign policy traditions”, British Politics 16:2 (2021) p. 170, 177.
Gaskarth, Strategizing; McCourt, Britain.
David McCourt, “What was Britain's ‘East of Suez Role’? Reassessing the Withdrawal, 1964–1968”, Diplomacy and Statecraft 20:3 (2019), pp. 453-472; Saki Dockrill, Britain’s Retreat from East of Suez: The Choice between Europe and the World (London, Palgrave, 2002); Matthew James, “A Decision Delayed: Britain’s Withdrawal from South East Asia Reconsidered, 1961-68”, The English Historical Review 117:472 (2002), pp. 569-595; Phuong L. Pham, Ending “East of Suez”: The British Decision to Withdraw from Malaysia and Singapore 1964-1968 (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2010); Sue Thompson, British Military Withdrawal and the Rise of Regional Cooperation in South-East Asia, 1964-73 (London, Palgrave, 2014); William James, “Global Britain’s strategic problem East of Suez”, European Journal of International Security 6:2 (2021), pp. 171-189; John Subritzky “Britain, Konfrontasi, and the end of empire in Southeast Asia, 1961–65”, The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 28:3 (2000), pp. 209-227.
Dockrill, Britain’s retreat.
Pham, Ending.
McCourt, What was Britain’s, p. 460.
Anthony Forster, “The European Union in South-East Asia: Continuity and Change in Turbulent Times”, International Affairs 75:4 (1999), pp. 743-758.
Ibid., p. 752.
Mark Garnett, Simon Mabon and Robert Smith, British foreign policy since 1945 (Oxon, Routledge, 2018).
See, for example, Matt Beech, “British Conservatism and Foreign Policy: Traditions and Ideas Shaping Cameron's Global View”, The British Journal of Politics and International Relations 13:3, (2011), pp. 348-363.
Southgate, UK-ASEAN.
Gaskarth and Langdon, The Dilemma.
Glencross and McCourt, Living Up.
Alister Miskimmon, Ben O’Loughlin, and Laura Roselle, Strategic Narratives: Communication Power and the New World Order (Abingdon, Routledge, 2013).
HM Government, Global Britain.
HM Government, National Maritime Security Strategy (London, Department for Transport, 2022), https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/62fcbf748fa8f504bd84581f/national-strategy-for-maritime-security-print-version.pdf consulted 21 September 2022.
Gabriel Elefteriu, ‘The Integrated Review – Policy Exchange’s Reflections’, 22 March 2021.
https://policyexchange.org.uk/the-integrated-review-policy-exchanges-reflections/ consulted 14 September 2022.
Ibid.
Policy Exchange, ‘A Very British Tilt: Towards a new UK strategy in the Indo-Pacific
Region’, 2020. https://policyexchange.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/A-Very-British-Tilt.pdf consulted 14 September 2022; The Chatham House vision was set out in their 2020 report: Robin Niblett, “Global Britain, Global Broker”, Chatham House, 11 January 2021, https://www.chathamhouse.org/2021/01/global-britain-global-broker consulted 12 January 2023
The Council of Geostrategy website contains details of these events as well as their projects, including the Strong Britain Initiative: https://www.geostrategy.org.uk/
David McCourt, “Knowledge Communities in US Foreign Policy Making: The American China Field and the End of Engagement with the PRC”, Security Studies 31:4 (2022), p. 593.
Tim Summers, Hiu Man Chan, Peter Gries and Richard Turcsanyi, “Worsening British views of China in 2020: evidence from public opinion, parliament, and the media”, Asia Europe Journal 20 (2022), pp. 173–194.
Summers et al., Worsening.
HM Government, Global Britain.
HM Government, Integrated Review, 2023.
HM Government, National Maritime.
Xinchuchu Gao and Xuechen Chen, “Post-Brexit British Foreign Policy toward Indo-Pacific”. Presentation at the workshop on “UK Indo-Pacific tilt and Southeast Asia: New perspectives and directions”, University of Bristol, June 2022.
Michael Gasiorek, ‘New government, new trade policy?’, UK Trade Policy Observatory, 12 September 2022, https://blogs.sussex.ac.uk/uktpo/2022/09/12/new-government-new-trade-policy/ consulted 21 September 2022.
Joe Devanny and Philip. A. Berry, “The Conservative Party and DFID: party statecraft and development policy since 1997”, Contemporary British History 36:1 (2022), pp. 86-123.
Daniela Gabor, “The Wall Street Consensus”, Development and Change 52:3 (2021), pp. 429-459.
HM Government, The UK Government’s Strategy for International Development (London, Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office, 2022) https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/628208d68fa8f5562179576f/uk-governments-strategy-international-development.pdf consulted 21 September 2022 consulted 21 September 2022.
Ministry of Defence, Integrated Operating Concept (Ministry of Defence, London, 2020); Ministry of Defence, Defence in a Competitive Age (Ministry of Defence, London, 2021); Ministry of Defence, Defence Command Paper 2023: Defence’s response to a more contested and volatile world (Ministry of Defence, London, 2023)
Janes “UK defence spending to remain above 2% of GDP”, 2022. https://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/uk-defence-spending-to-remain-above-2-of-gdp#:~:text=On%2017%20November%2C%20UK%20Chancellor,finances%20and%20reining%20in%20inflation consulted 3 January 2023.
Independent Commission for Aid Impact, “The UK’s approach to democracy and human rights”, 18 January 2023, https://icai.independent.gov.uk/review/the-uks-approach-to-democracy-and-human-rights/ accessed 1 June 2023.
Wendy Brown, In the Ruins of Neoliberalism (Columbia University Press, 2019).
HM Government, Integrated Review, 2023.
The phrase “force for good” is absent in IR 2023. Out of seven mentions of human rights in IR 2023, five are in relation to human rights violations in China, one in relation to supporting the human rights of the people of Russia, and one in relation to the UK’s broader commitment to human rights. This contrasts with a whole subsection on the UK as a global force for good and defender of human rights in IR 2021.
UK Government, National Maritime.
Gaskarth, Strategizing; Glencross and McCourt, Living Up; Oppermann et al., British.
Bradford, US Perspectives.
Oppermann et al., British.
Gaskarth, Strategy, p. 15.
Ibid., p. 18.
For a recent discussion of individual country perspectives on security and US-China competition in Southeast Asia, which notes the diversity of approaches, see Lee Jaehyon (ed.), “Southeast Asian Perspectives of the United States and China: A SWOT Analysis”, Asan Institute for Policy Studies (2022).
ASEAN documents, such as the Outlook on the Indo-Pacific, emerge from a prolonged process of negotiation and consensus-building meaning that despite diversity of opinion within ASEAN, such documents and declarations can be taken as representing a collective position reached through elite consensus. See Bhubhindar Singh and Henrick Z Tsjeng, “ASEAN Outlook on Indo-Pacific: Seizing the Narrative?”, RSIS Commentary 16 (2020); Hoang Thi Ham, “ASEAN Outlook on the Indo-Pacific: Old Wine in New Bottle?” ISEAS 2019:51 (2019).
I Gusti Bagus Dharma Agastia “Understanding Indonesia's role in the ‘ASEAN
Outlook on the Indo-Pacific’: A role theory approach”, Asia & The Pacific Policy Studies 7:3 (2019), pp. 293-305; Singh and Tsjeng “ASEAN Outlook”; Hoang Thi Ha, “ASEAN Outlook”; Dewi Fortuna Anwar, “Indonesia and the ASEAN outlook on the Indo-Pacific”, International Affairs 96:1 (2021), pp. 111-129; Rory Medcalf, “Indo-Pacific Visions”, Asia Policy 14:3 (2019), pp. 79-95.
ASEAN, ASEAN Outlook on the Indo-Pacific (Jakarta, ASEAN, 2019).
Sharon Seah, Joanne Lin, Melinda Martinus, Sithanonxay Suvannaphakdy, and Pham Thi Phuong Thao, The State of Southeast Asia Report 2023 (ISEAS, Singapore, 2023).
Evelyn Goh, “Great Powers and Hierarchical Order in Southeast Asia: Analyzing Regional Security Strategies”, International Security 32:3 (2007), pp. 113–57.
We recognise there are significant divergences in perception at an intra-ASEAN level, which can be seen in the breakdown in Seah et al., The State 2023.
Sharon Seah, Joanne Lin, Melinda Martinus, Sithanonxay Suvannaphakdy, and Pham Thi Phuong Thao, The State of Southeast Asia Report 2022 (ISEAS, Singapore, 2022).
Seah et al., The State 2022, p. 3.
Bradford, US Expectations.
Lynn Kuok, “From withdrawal to Indo-Pacific ‘tilt’: Southeast Asia welcomes enhanced British security presence”, International Institute of Strategic Studies Analysis, 11 August 2021. https://www.iiss.org/blogs/analysis/2021/08/southeast-asia-british-security-presence-indo-pacific-tilt consulted 27 September 2022.
Interview with official involved in ASEAN negotiations, Friday 8 October 2022; Interview with ASEAN member-state foreign ministry official, Monday 25 April 2022.
Interview with ASEAN member-state foreign ministry official, Monday 25 April 2022; Interview with Indonesian maritime security practitioner, Thursday 15 December 2022; Interview with Thai maritime security practitioner, Wednesday 12 October 2022.
Interview with ASEAN member-state foreign ministry official, Monday 25 April 2022.
Interview with ASEAN member-state executive office official, Wednesday 2 March 2022.
Interview with Indonesian maritime security practitioner, Thursday 15 December 2022; Interview with Thai maritime security practitioner, Wednesday 12 October 2022.
Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office, “Policy paper: Plan of action to implement the ASEAN-United Kingdom Dialogue Partnership (2022 to 2026)”, 4 August 2022, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/asean-uk-dialogue-partnership-plan-of-action-2022-to-2026/plan-of-action-to-implement-the-asean-united-kingdom-dialogue-partnership-2022-to-2026; FCDO, “Policy paper: Fourth session of the United Kingdom-Thailand Strategic Dialogue: joint statement, 1 July 2022, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/fourth-uk-thailand-strategic-dialogue-2022/fourth-session-of-the-united-kingdom-thailand-strategic-dialogue-joint-statement consulted 21 September 2022; FCDO, “Policy paper: Joint declaration on UK-Viet Nam strategic partnership: forging ahead for another 10 years”, 30 September 2020, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/uk-vietnam-strategic-partnership-forging-ahead-for-another-10-years/joint-declaration-uk-vietnam-strategic-partnership-refreshed; FCDO, “Policy paper: UK-Indonesia Partnership Roadmap, 2022-2024”, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/uk-indonesia-partnership-roadmap-2022-to-2024; Malaysia–United Kingdom Strategic Dialogue Malaysia–United Kingdom Strategic Dialogue, February 2022 - GOV.UK (www.gov.uk) (all consulted 28 September 2022).
FCDO, “ASEAN-UK Dialogue Partnership (2022 to 2026).
Interview with official involved in ASEAN negotiations, Friday 8 October 2022.
ASEAN, “Plan of Action to Implement the ASEAN-EU Strategic Partnership (2023-2027), 4 August 2022, https://asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/ASEAN-EU-Plan-of-Action-2023-2027-FINAL.pdf consulted 2 June 2023.
It is important to note the UK is not uniformly approaching each country in region, and the maritime priority states are primarily Indonesia, Philippines, Singapore, with additional focus on Thailand and Malaysia.
Interview with ASEAN member-state foreign ministry official, Monday 25 April 2022.
Interview with ASEAN member-state foreign ministry official, Monday 25 April 2022.
Plan of action to implement the ASEAN-United Kingdom Dialogue Partnership (2022 to 2026) Plan of action to implement the ASEAN-United Kingdom Dialogue Partnership (2022 to 2026) - GOV.UK (www.gov.uk) consulted 28 September 2022.
Interview with Indonesian maritime security practitioner, Thursday 15 December 2022; Interview with Thai maritime security practitioner, Wednesday 12 October 2022.
Interview with ASEAN member-state foreign ministry official, Monday 25 April 2022.
Interview with ASEAN member-state foreign ministry official, Monday 25 April 2022.
Rory Medcalf, “An Australia Vision of the Indo-Pacific and what it means for Southeast Asia”, Southeast Asian Affairs (2019), pp. 53-60.
Gaskarth, Strategy, p. 19.
HM Government, Integrated Review, 2023.
James Cleverly, Foreign Secretary’s Speech, 12 December 2022, https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/foreign-secretarys-speech-12-december-2022 consulted 12 January 2023.
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