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Notes
Arthur Young, ‘Gleanings in an Excursion to Lewes Fair’, Annals of Agriculture 17 (1791), pp. 168-170.
The first recorded acts of threshing machine breaking – as opposed to destruction by arson – occurred in the spring and summer of 1815: Alfred Peacock, Bread or Blood: A Study of the Agrarian Riots in East Anglia in 1816 (London, Gollancz, 1965), pp. 69-70; Carl Griffin, The Rural War: Captain Swing and the Politics of Protest (Manchester, Manchester University Press, 2012), p. 52.
Maxine Berg, The Machinery Question and the Making of Political Economy 1815-1848 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1980), p. 101.
Adrian Randall, Riotous Assemblies: Popular Protest in Hanoverian England (Oxford, Oxford University Press, Oxford), p. 59.
On which see: Thomas Ashton and Joseph Sykes, The Coal Industry of the Eighteenth Century (Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1929).
Griffin, The Rural War; Eric Hobsbawm and George Rudé, Captain Swing (London, Lawrence and Wishart, 1969).
Randall, Riotous Assemblies, ch. 11; Matthew Roberts, ‘Rural Luddism and the Makeshift Economy of the Nottinghamshire Framework Knitters’, Social History 42, 3 (2017), pp. 365-398.
Frank Darvall, Popular Disturbances and Public Order in Regency England (New York, Oxford University Press, 1934); John Hammond and Barbara Hammond, The Skilled Labourer 1760–1832 (London, Longmans, 1920); Eric Hobsbawm, ‘The Machine Breakers’, Past and Present 1 (1952), pp. 57-70; Malcolm Thomis, The Luddites: Machine Breaking in Regency England (Newton Abbot, David and Charles, 1970); John Dinwiddy, ‘Luddism and Politics in the Northern Counties’, Social History 4, 1 (1979), pp. 33-63; Adrian Randall, Before the Luddites: Custom, Community and Machinery in the English Woollen Industry, 1776-1809 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991); Kevin Binfield, The Writings of the Luddites (Baltimore, ML, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004); Katrina Navickas, ‘The Search for ‘General Ludd’: the Mythology of Luddism’, Social History 30, 3 (2005), pp. 281-295; Idem., ‘Luddism, Incendiarism and the Defence of Rural ‘Task-scapes’ in 1812’, Northern History 48, 1 (2011), pp. 59-73; Roberts, ‘Rural Luddism’; Idem., ‘E. P. Thompson, Shirley, and the Antinomian Tradition in West Riding Luddism and Popular Protest’, Labour History Review 86, 2 (2021), pp. 187-214.
Edward Palmer Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (London, Gollancz, 1963).
Carl Griffin, ‘“Cut Down by Some Cowardly Miscreants”: Plant Maiming, or the Malicious Cutting of Flora, as an Act of Protest in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Rural England’, Rural History, 19, 1 (2008), p. 30.
The classic account of this derision given voice in academic work is: Gustave Le Bon, The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind (New York: MacMillan, 1895, first published in French in 1895).
Hadrian Cook and Tom Williamson (eds.), Water Management in the English Landscape: Field, Marsh and Meadow (Keele, Keele University Press, 1999); Piet Van Cruyningen, ‘Dutch Investors and the Drainage of Hatfield Chase, 1626 to 1656’, Agricultural History Review 64, 1 (2016), pp. 17-37.
Randall, Riotous Assemblies, p.132.
Humphrey Jennings, Pandemonium: the Coming of the Machine as Seen by Contemporary Observers, 1660-1885 (London, Free Press, 1986).
Paul Glennie and Nigel Thrift, Shaping the Day: A History of Timekeeping in England and Wales, 1300-1800 (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 94.
On this dynamic see: Roger Wells, ‘Counting Riots in Eighteenth-Century England’, Labour History Review 37 (1978), pp. 68-72.
Hobsbawm, ‘The Machine Breakers’, p. 62.
Randall, Before the Luddites, pp. 41-4.
Joel Mokyr, The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1992).
Cobbett’s Weekly Political Register, 30 November 1816. For an elaboration of this point see: Berg, The Machinery Question, pp. 100-102.
Cobbett’s Weekly Political Register, 30 July 1831
Hobsbawm, ‘The Machine Breakers’, passim.
Randall, Riotous Assemblies, p. 131.
Hobsbawm, ‘The Machine Breakers’, pp. 58-9, citing Darvall, Popular Disturbances, ch. 8.
Hobsbawm, ‘The Machine Breakers’, p. 58; Thomis, The Luddites; Randall, Riotous Assemblies, ch. 11.
David Walsh, ‘The Lancashire “Rising” of 1826’ Albion 26, 4 (1996), pp. 601-621.
Charles Tilly Regimes and Repertoires (Chicago, IL, University of Chicago Press, 2010).
Eric Hobsbawm, Labouring Men: Studies in the History of Labour (London, Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1968), pp. 7-8
James Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven, CT, Yale University Press, 1985).
George Rudé, ‘Review of Malcolm Thomis’s The Luddites: Machine-Breaking in Regency England’, Journal of Social History 5, 2 (1971), p .261.
For instance, in East Kent where Swing was first manifest. See: Carl Griffin, ‘“There Was No Law To Punish That Offence”: Re-assessing ‘Captain Swing’: Rural Luddism and Rebellion in East Kent, 1830-31’, Southern History 22 (2000), pp. 131-163.
Robert Shoemaker, ‘The London Mob in the Early Eighteenth Century’, Journal of British Studies 26 (1987), pp. 273-304; Norah Carlin, ‘Liberty and Fraternities in the English Revolution: The Politics of London Artisans' Protests, 1635–1659’, International Review of Social History 39, 2 (1994), pp. 223-254; Philip Loft, ‘Petitioning and Petitioners to the Westminster Parliament, 1660–1788’, Parliamentary History 38, 3 (2019), pp. 342-361.
Katrina Navickas, Loyalism and Radicalism in Lancashire, 1798-1815 (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 192.
Berg, The Machinery Question, esp. pp. 15-6.
Randall, Before the Luddites, passim; Roberts, ‘Rural Luddism’, p. 365.
John Rule, The Experience of Labour in Eighteenth-Century Industry (London, Croom Helm, 1981), p. 116.
William Felkin, History of the Machine-wrought Hosiery and Lace Manufacture (Newton Abbot, David and Charles, 1967, first published 1867, London), chs. 4 and 5.
Felkin, History, pp. 115-17; John Rule, ‘General introduction’ to John Hammond and Barbara Hammond, The Skilled Labourer, new edition, edited and introduced by John Rule, (London, Longman, 1979), pp. viii-xxxiii.
Roberts, ‘Rural Luddism’, pp. 370-1
House of Commons Journal, xviii (1717), 715, cited in Randall, Riotous Assemblies, p. 138.
Hobsbawm, ‘The Machine Breakers’, p. 59.
Randall, Riotous Assemblies, pp. 139-41; Hobsbawm, ‘The Machine Breakers’, p. 59.
Randall, Riotous Assemblies, pp. 246-8.
John Styles, ‘The Rise and Fall of the Spinning Jenny: Domestic Mechanisation in Eighteenth-Century Cotton Spinning’, Textile History 51, 2 (2020), pp.220-221; Randall, Riotous Assemblies 240-5.
Adrian Randall, ‘The Shearmen and the Wiltshire Outrages of 1802: Trade Unionism and Industrial Violence’, Social History 7, 3 (1982), pp. 283-304; Randall, Riotous Assembles, 250-9.
Hobsbawm, Labouring Men, pp. 7-8. On protest and the moral economy see: Peter Jones, ‘Swing, Speenhamland and Rural Social Relations: the ‘Moral Economy’ of the English Crowd in the Nineteenth Century’, Social History 32, 3 (2007), pp. 271-290; Andrew Charlesworth and Adrian Randall (eds.) Moral Economy and Popular Protest: Crowds, Conflict and Authority (London, Macmillan, 2000) p. 1; Edward Palmer Thompson, ‘The Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Eighteenth Century’, Past and Present 50, 1 (1971), pp. 76-136.
Roberts, ‘Rural Luddism’, p.367. The earlier claim comes from – and the previous three paragraphs are based on: Carl Griffin, Protest, Politics and Work in Rural England, 1700-1850 (Farnham, Palgrave, 2014), pp. 120-2.
Binfield, The Writings of the Luddites, passim.
Hammond and Hammond, The Skilled Labourer, pp. 46-70; Randall, Riotous Assemblies, pp. 260-3.
On which see: David Hay, ‘The State and the Market in 1800: Lord Kenyon and Mr Waddington’, Past and Present 162, 1 (1999), pp. 101-162.
Randall, Riotous Assemblies, pp. 263-70.
Ibid., p. 273.
Navickas, ‘Luddism’, p. 60.
Roberts, ‘Rural Luddism’, p. 368.
Carl Griffin, ‘The Culture of Combination: Solidarities and Collective Action Before Tolpuddle’, Historical Journal 58, 2 (2015), pp.443-480; Carl Griffin, ‘Rural Workers and the Role of the Rural in Eighteenth-Century English Food Rioting’, Historical Journal 64, 5 (2021), pp. 1230-1256.
Roberts, ‘Rural Luddism’, p. 369-71, 395; Randall, Riotous Assemblies, ch. 11.
Thomis, The Luddites, pp. 87, 177; Randall, Riotous Assemblies, pp. 277-279.
Ibid., pp. 278-279; Binfield, Writings of the Luddites, pp. 168-9.
Randall, Riotous Assemblies, pp. 271-283.
Thomis, The Luddites, esp. pp. 105-6, 183-4; pp. Randall, Riotous Assemblies, 284-288.
Navickas, Loyalism and Radicalism, 193.
Binfield, Writings of the Luddites, 169; Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class, p.51. On the ways in which radical politics informed and infused Lancashire and Yorkshire Luddism see: Dinwiddy, ‘Luddism and Politics’.
Randall, Riotous Assemblies, p. 290.
Navickas, Loyalism and Radicalism, pp. 195-6.
Navickas, ‘Luddism’, p. 65.
Navickas, ‘The search for “General Ludd”’, p. 284.
Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class, p. 594. Also see: Peter Linebaugh, Ned Ludd & Queen Mab: Machine-Breaking, Romanticism, and the Several Commons of 1811-12 (Oakland, CA, Retort, 2012), p. 13.
Navickas, ‘Luddism’, pp. 64-7.
Binfield, Writings of the Luddites, pp. 153-166; Thomis, The Luddites, p. 182.
Norman Gash, ‘After Waterloo: British Society and the Legacy of the Napoleonic Wars’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, fifth series, 28 (1978), p. 147.
Peacock, Bread or Blood, pp. 27-9.
See Andrew Charlesworth, A Comparative Study of the Spread of the Agricultural Disturbances of 1816, 1822 and 1830 (Liverpool, Department of Geography, 1982).
Peacock, Bread or Blood, pp. 71-5.
The National Archives [herein TNA], Home Office [HO], 42/ 149, fos 1-2.
Bury and Norwich Post, 8 May 1816; TNA, HO 42, 150, fos 8-11.
Peacock, Bread or Blood, pp. 75-7. Stoke-by-Clare saw renewed machine-breaking on 22 May: Morning Chronicle, 25 May 1816; Andrew Charlesworth An Atlas of Rural Protest in Britain, 1548-1900 (London, Croom Helm, 1983), p. 146.
Peacock, Bread or Blood, p. 77.
Charlesworth, Atlas of Rural Protest, p. 148.
Bury and Norwich Post, 27 May 1816; Philip Warren (ed.), Report of the Trials for Rioting at Ely and Littleport (Wilburton, self-published, 1997), pp. 1-42.
Charlesworth, Atlas of Rural Protest, 146; Peacock, Bread or Blood, 116-9.
Charlesworth, Atlas of Rural Protest, 146; Peacock, Bread or Blood, 116-9.
Charlesworth, Atlas of Rural Protest, p. 147.
For examples see Paul Muskett, ‘The East Anglian Agrarian Riots of 1822’, Agricultural History Review 32, 1 (1984), p. 3.
For an exploration of these dynamics see Griffin, Protest, Politics and Work, ch. 1
Neil Fox, ‘The Spread of the Threshing Machine in Central Southern England’, Agricultural History Review 26, 1 (1978), pp. 26-8.
Ipswich Journal, 2 February 1822; Muskett, ‘East Anglian Agrarian Riots’, p. 5.
Ibid., 5; Bury and Norwich Post, 20 February 1822.
The Ipswich Journal, 9 and 16 March; Morning Chronicle, 9 March; Bury and Norwich Post, 20 March 1822; Muskett, Paul, Riotous Assemblies: Popular Disturbances in East Anglia 1740-1822 (Ely, Earo, 1984), pp. 61-70.
Muskett, ‘East Anglian Agrarian Riots’, pp. 6-7; Muskett, Riotous Assemblies, pp. 66-8.
Ibid., 68; Charlesworth, Atlas of Rural Protest, p. 148.
Maidstone Journal, 12 April 1822.
Griffin, The Rural War, pp. 67-8.
Walsh, ‘Lancashire “Rising”’, pp.601-21.
quoted in John Archer, By a Flash and a Scare: Incendiarism, Animal Maiming, and Poaching in East Anglia, 1815-1870 (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1990), p. 88.
Kent and Essex Mercury, 13 and 27 January, 3, 17 and 24 February, 3, 10, 17 and 24 March 1829.
Archer, By a Flash and a Scare, pp. 87-8.
Devizies and Wiltshire Gazette, 5 November 1829.
Griffin, The Rural War, pp. 87-90; Hobsbawm and Rudé, Captain Swing, p. 85; Carl Griffin, ‘Policy on the Hoof’: Sir Robert Peel, Sir Edward Knatchbull and the Trial of the Elham Machine Breakers, 1830’, Rural History 15, 2 (2004), pp. 131-5.
Kentish Gazette, 8 and 15 October; Brighton Herald, 16 October 1830.
Griffin, ‘Policy on the Hoof’, pp. 136-7.
Griffin, The Rural War, pp. 91, 92-3.
Maidstone Journal, 12 October 1830.
Centre for Kentish Studies, Q/SBw/124/7; TNA, HO 52/8, fos 365-6 and 361-2.
Roger Wells, ‘Mr William Cobbett, Captain Swing, and King William IV’, Agricultural History Review 45, 1 (1997), pp. 35-6, 39; Griffin, The Rural War, pp. 95-7.
Griffin, The Rural War, pp. 97-103.
TNA, HO 52/8, fos 621-2; West Sussex County Record Office, QR/Q 51.
For the role of fires before the outbreak of collective actions see: Carl Griffin, ‘“The Mystery of the Fires”: ‘Captain Swing’ as Incendiarist’, Southern History 32 (2010), pp. 31-4.
Hobsbawm and Rudé, Captain Swing, pp. 122-123 and appendix 3.
Ian Dyck, William Cobbett and Rural Popular Culture (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 171-7; D. Kent, Popular Radicalism and the Swing Riots in Central Hampshire, Hampshire papers, no. 11 (Winchester, Hampshire County Record Office, 1997), pp. 3-9, 13-14.
Peter Jones, ‘Finding Captain Swing: Protest, Parish Relations, and the State of the Public Mind in 1830’, International Review of Social History 54, 3 (2009), pp. 429-458, 443-54; Hobsbawm and Rudé, Captain Swing, pp. 135-40.
Adrian Randall, and Edwina Newman, ‘Protest, Proletarians and Paternalists: Social Conflict in Rural Wiltshire, 1830–1850’, Rural History 6, 2 (1995), pp. 209-213.
Hobsbawm and Rudé, Captain Swing, pp. 304-5.
Griffin, The Rural War, pp. 104-5, 108-10 and 113-14.
Hobsbawm and Rudé, Captain Swing, pp. 253-6.
Kevin Bawn, ‘Social Protest, Popular Disturbances and Public Order in Dorset, 1790–1838’ (PhD dissertation, University of Reading, 1984), ch.4; Hobsbawm and Rudé, Captain Swing, pp. 129-30, 338-9, 344-5.
Ibid., 130-1; Western Flying Post, 6 December 1830; J. Maynard, ‘The Agricultural Labourer in Worcestershire: Responses to Economic Change and Social Dislocation 1790-1841’ (PhD dissertation, Coventry University, 2006), pp. 184, 191-3, 198. On the paucity of protest but depth of paranoia in the West Midlands see: Eric Richards, ‘“Captain Swing” in the West Midlands’, International Review of Social History 19, 1 (1974), pp. 86-99.
Hobsbawm and Rudé, Captain Swing, pp. 128-9, 140, 141.
Ibid., 143-50; The Standard, 1 December 1830. Also see Gillian Chambers, Buckinghamshire Machine Breakers: the Story of the 1830 Riots (Lutterworth, self-published, 1991).
Archer, By a Flash and a Scare, pp. 89-95; Hobsbawm and Rudé, Captain Swing, pp. 152-62; Rose Wallis, ‘Prosecution, Precedence and Official Memory: Judicial Responses and Perceptions of Swing in Norfolk’, in Carl Griffin and Briony McDonagh (eds.), Remembering Protest in Britain since 1500: Memory, Materiality and the Landscape (Farnham, Palgrave, 2018), pp.159-185.
Hobsbawm and Rudé, Captain Swing, pp. 146-7.
Ibid., 146-7.
Tom Richardson, ‘The Agricultural Labourers’ Standard of Living in Lincolnshire, 1790-1840: Social Protest and Public Order’, Agricultural History Review 41, 1 (1993), pp. 10-14; Hobsbawm and Rudé, Captain Swing, pp. 135-6, appendix 1.
Hobsbawm and Rudé, Captain Swing, appendix 3; Katrina Navickas, ‘Captain Swing in the North: the Carlisle Riots of 1830’, History Workshop Journal 71 (2011), pp. 15, 17.
Jones, ‘Finding Captain Swing’, p. 457.
West Sussex County Record Office, QR/W/758 fos 280, 269, 270, 271 and 272.
Jeremy Burchardt, The Allotment Movement in England, 1793-1873 (Woodbridge, Boydell & Brewer, 2002), pp. esp. 51-5.
Griffin, The Rural War, p. 319.
Binfield, Writings of the Luddites.
Griffin, The Rural War, p. 218.
TNA, HO 52/10, fo. 373.
Hobsbawm and Rudé, Captain Swing, p. 281.
Griffin, The Rural War, ch. 11.
Young, ‘Gleanings’, p.168.
Marie Rowlands, Masters and Men: in the West Midland Metalware Trades Before the Industrial Revolution (Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1975).
Maynard, The Agricultural Labourer, p. 193.
David Jones, Before Rebecca: Popular Protests in Wales, 1793-1835 (Allen Lane, London, 1973), pp. 83, 86.
On Rebecca see: Lowri Ann Rees, ‘Paternalism and Rural Protest: the Rebecca Riots and the Landed Interest of South-West Wales. Agricultural History Review 59, 1 (2011), pp. 36-60; Rhian Jones, Petticoat Heroes: Gender, Culture and Popular Protest in the Rebecca Riots (Cardiff, University of Wales Press, 2015),
Chris Whatley, The Industrial Revolution in Scotland (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 76, 87; Ian Donnachie, ‘“The Darker Side”: a Speculative Survey of Scottish Crime During the First Half of the Nineteenth Century’, Scottish Economic and Social History 15, 1 (1995), p. 16.
Gordon Pentland, The Spirit of the Union: Popular Politics in Scotland (London, Routledge, 2015), pp. 12-13; Alexander Richmond, Narrative of the Conditions of the Manufacturing Population; and the Proceedings of Government which Led to the State Trials in Scotland (London, Miller, 1824), esp. 10-34.
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