Bibliography
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BANKS, O. Faces of Feminism: A Study of Feminism as a Social Movement. New York and Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd., 1981, 285 p.
BERKMAN, Joyce. “Feminism, War, and Peace Politics: The Case of World War One”, pp. 141-160 in ELSHTAIN, J.B. & TOBIAS, S. (eds.), Women, Militarism, and War: Essays in History, Politics, and Social Theory, Savage: Rowman & Littlefield, 1990.
BURTON, Antoinette. “‘History’ is Now: feminist theory and the production of historical feminisms”, Women’s History Review, Vol. 1, Issue 1, 1992, pp. 25-39.
BRYSON, Valerie. Feminist Political Theory: An Introduction. London: Macmillan, 2003, 304 p.
CAINE, Barbara. English Feminism, 1780-1980. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997, 336 p.
CEADEL, Martin. Pacifism in Britain 1914-1945: The Defining of Faith. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980, 342 p.
CEADEL, Martin. Thinking About Peace and War. Oxford: Oxford Univesity Press, 1987, 222 p.
COCKBURN, Cynthia. From Where We Stand: War, Women’s Activism and Feminist Analysis. London and New York: Zed Books, 2007, 286 p.
COOPER, Sandi E. “Women’s Participation in European Peace Movements: the Struggle to Prevent World War I”, pp. 51-75 in PIERSON, R. R. & BROADRIBB, S. (eds.), Women and Peace: Theoretical, Historical and Practical Perspectives, London: Croom Helm, 1987.
DE VRIES, Jacqueline. “Gendering Patriotism: Emmeline and Christabel Pankhurst and World War One”, pp. 75-88 in Sybil OLDFIELD (ed.), This Working-Day World: Women’s Lives and Culture(s) in Britain, 1914-1945, London: Taylor & Francis, 1994.
DELMAR, Rosalind. “What Is Feminism?”, pp. 8-33 in MITCHELL, J. & OAKLEY, A. (eds.), What Is Feminism?, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986.
DOWNS, Laura Lee. “If “woman” is just an empty category, then why am I afraid to walk alone at night? Identity politics meets the postmodern subject”, Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 35, 1993, pp. 414-437.
EGLIN, Josephine. “Women and Peace: From the Suffragists to the Greenham Women”, pp. 221-259 in TAYLOR, R. & YOUNG, N. (eds.) Campaigns for Peace: British Peace Movements in the Twentieth Century, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987.
EISENSTEIN, Zillah R. Sexual Decoys: Gender, Race and War in Imperial Democracy. London and New York: Zed Books, 2007, 142 p.
ELSHTAIN, Jean Bethke. Women and War. Brighton: Harvester Press, 1987, 301 p.
ENLOE, Cynthia. Globalization and Militarism: Feminists Make the Link. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007, 187 p.
EVANS, Richard. The Feminists: Women’s Emancipation Movements in Europe, America and Australasia, 1840-1920. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, Barnes & Noble, 1977, 266 p.
FAWCETT, Millicent Garrett. The Women’s Victory – and After: Personal Reminiscences, 1911-1918. London: Sidgwick and Jackson Limited, 1920, 176 p.
FAWCETT, Millicent Garrett, What I Remember. London: Adelphi Terrace, 1924, 271 p.
GORDON, Linda. “Gender and the politics of history (review)”, Signs, Vol. 15, Issue 4, Summer 1990, pp. 853-858.
GORHAM, Deborah. “Vera Brittain, Flora MacDonald Denison and the Great War: the Failure of Non-Violence”, pp. 137-148 in PIERSON, R.R. & BROADRIBB, S. (eds.), Women and Peace: Theoretical, Historical and Practical Perspectives, London: Croom Helm, 1987.
GULLACE, Nicoletta. The Blood of Our Sons: Men, Women, and the Renegotiation of British Citizenship during the Great War. Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002, 284 p.
HARRISON, Brian. Separate Spheres: the Opposition to Women’s Suffrage in Britain. London: Croom Held Ltd., 1978, 274 p.
HOFF, Joan. “Gender as a postmodern category of paralysis”, Women’s Studies International Forum, Vol. 17, Issue 4, 1994, pp. 443-447.
HOLTON, Sandra Stanley. Feminism and Democracy: Women’s Suffrage and Reform Politics in Britain, 1900-1918. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986, 220 p.
JORGENSEN-EARP, Cheryl R. Speeches and Trials of the Militant Suffragettes: The Women’s Social and Political Union, 1903-1918. London: Associated University Press, 1999, 399 p.
KAMESTER, M. & VELLACOTT, J. (eds.). Militarism Versus Feminism: Writings on Women and War / Catherine Marshall, C.K. Ogden and Mary Sargant Florence. London: Virago, 1987, 178 p.
KENT, Susan Kingsley. “The politics of sexual difference: World War I and the demise of British feminism”, Journal of British Studies, Vol. 27, Issue 3, July 1988, pp. 232-253.
KENT, Susan Kingsley. Making Peace: the Reconstruction of Gender in Interwar Britain. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993, 182 p.
LAWS, Sophie. “Letter”, pp. 41-44 in WHISKER, B. & BISHOP, J. & MOHIN, L. & LONGDON, T. (eds.). Breaching the Peace: A Collection of Radical Feminist Papers, London: Onlywomenpress, 1984.
LEFEBVRE, Marc. Feminism and the Challenge of War: Responses of the British Women’s Suffrage Movement to the Outbreak of the Great War. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of London, 2009, 308 p.
LIDDINGTON, Jill. “The Women’s Peace Crusade: the History of a Forgotten Campaign”, pp. 180-98 in Dorothy THOMPSON (ed.), Over Our Dead Bodies: Women Against the Bomb, London: Virago Press, 1983.
LIDDINGTON, Jill. The Long Road to Greenham: Feminism and Anti-militarism in Britain since 1820. London Virago Press, 1989, 350 p.
MITCHELL, David. Women on the Warpath: the Story of the Women of the First World War. London: Jonathan Cape, 1965, 400 p.
OFFEN, Karen. “Defining feminism: a comparative historical approach”, Signs, vol. 14, issue 1, 1988, pp. 119-57
OLDFIELD, Sybil. Women Against the Iron Fist: Alternatives to Militarism, 1900-1989. London: Basil Blackwell, 1989, 244 p.
PANKHURST, Sylvia. The Home Front: a Mirror to Life in England During the First World War; Forward by the Rt. Hon. Mrs Shirley Williams; Introduction by Richard Pankhurst. London: Cresset Library, 1987 [1932], 460 p.
RILEY, Denise. “Am I that Name?”: Feminism and the Category of “Women” in History. Basingstoke: Macmillan Press, 1988, 126 p.
RILEY, R.L & MOHANTY, C.T. & PRATT, M.B. (eds.). Feminism and War: Confronting U.S. Imperialism. London and New York: Zed Books Editors, 2008, 280 p.
ROSENEIL, Sasha. Disarming Patriarchy: Feminism and Political Action at Greenham. Buckingham: Open University Press, 1995, 225 p.
SABROSKY, Judith. From Rationality to Liberation: the Evolution of Feminist Ideology. London: Greenwood Press, 1979, 175 p.
SCOTT, Joan W. “Gender: a useful category of historical analysis”, The American Historical Review, Vol. 91, No. 5, Dec. 1986, pp. 1053-1075.
SCOTT, Joan W. “Rewriting history”, pp. 21-29 in HIGONNET, M.R. (ed.), Behind the lines : gender and the two world wars, New Haven, London: Yale University Press, 1987.
SCOTT, Joan W. “Introduction”, pp. 1-14 in Joan W. SCOTT, Gender and the Politics of History, New York: Columbia University Press, 1999.
SCOTT, Joan W. Gender and the Politics of History. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999, 242 p.
SPENDER, Dale. There’s Always Been a Women’s Movement This Century. London: Pandora Press, 1983, 200 p.
SPENDER, Dale. Feminists Theorists: Three Centuries of Women’s Intellectual Traditions. London: The Women’s Press Limited, 1983, 402 p.
SPENDER, Dale. Time and Tide Wait For No Man. London: Pandora Press, 1984, 287 p.
STRACHEY, Ray. The Cause: A Short History of the Women’s Movement in Great Britain. London: Virago, 1978 [1928], 429 p.
TYLEE, Claire M. “ “Maleness run riot” – the Great War and women’s resistance to militarism”, Women’s Studies International Forum, Vol. 11, No. 3, 1988, pp. 199-210.
VELLACOTT-NEWBERRY, Jo. “Anti-war suffragists”, History, Vol. LXII, 1977, pp. 411-425.
VELLACOTT, Jo. “Feminist Consciousness and the First World War”, pp. 114-136 in PIERSON, R.R. & BROADRIBB, S. (eds.), Women and Peace: Theoretical, Historical and Practical Perspectives, London: Croom Helm, 1987.
VELLACOTT, Jo. Pacifists, Patriots and the Vote: the Erosion of Democratic Suffragism in Britain During the First World War. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007, 227 p.
WHISKER, B. & BISHOP, J. & MOHIN, L. & LONGDON, T. (eds.). Breaching the Peace: A Collection of Radical Feminist Papers, London: Onlywomenpress, 1984, 44 p.
WILTSHER, Anne. Most Dangerous Women. London: Pandora Press, 1985, 263 p.
WINTER, J. & PROST, A. The Great War in History: Debates and Controversies, 1914 to the Present. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005, 250 p.
WINTER, J. (dir.) The Cambridge History of the First World War. Volume 3, Civil Society, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014, 771 p.
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Notes
I would like to thank David Ferguson, Saul Newman and Jim Martin for comments on a much earlier (and considerably longer!) draft of this article. Karine Bigand, Valérie André and Nicolas Boileau, as well as ridding the text of its worst infelicities, provided me with much needed comradeship as I struggled to whittle the original beast down to size. Thanks also to the anonymous reviewer for her/his helpful comments. My greatest thanks are for Florence Binard and John Mullen, whose patience and forbearance put Penelope to shame.
Sophie LAWS, “Letter”, pp. 43-44 in Brenda WHISKER et al., Breaching the Peace: A Collection of Radical Feminist Papers, London: Onlywomenpress, 1984.
Barbara CAINE, English Feminism, 1780-1980, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997, p. 10.
This notion of iconic images was suggested to me by reading Jill Liddington’s groundbreaking study of feminism and anti-militarism in which she describes ‘Greenham woman’ as ‘a many-sided icon, ever shifting’. See Jill LIDDINGTON, The Long Road to Greenham: Feminism and Anti-Militarism in Britain since 1820, London: Virago Press, p. 246, my emphasis.
See, for instance, Jill LIDDINGTON, ibid. p. 105; or Josephine Eglin’s claim that “since 1915 there has always been a women’s peace movement in Britain’ in Josephine EGLIN, “Women and Peace: From the Suffragists to the Greenham Women”, p. 221 in R. TAYLOR & N. YOUNG (eds.) Campaigns for Peace: British Peace Movements in the Twentieth Century, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987.
Readers familiar with the work of Joan Scott will perhaps have been reminded, in reading the above, of her review of the debates surrounding the impact of the twentieth century’s two World Wars on women (cf. SCOTT, J. “Rewriting history”, pp. 21-29 in HIGONNET, M.R. (ed.), Behind the lines : gender and the two world wars, New Haven, London: Yale University Press, 1987). Indeed, she identified four such debates, all subtle variations on the ‘watershed theme’ (p. 23):
a) Whether or not these conflicts brought women new opportunities and transformed the ways in which their place and roles in society were perceived.
b) Whether or not the wars had a decisive impact on women’s political rights.
c) Whether or not the conflicts had an impact on the women’s peace movements and if they demonstrate women’s natural inclination to peace politics.
d) Whether the conflicts had any short- and/or long-term impacts on women’s status and condition.
As one might expect, these four themes overlap considerably with my four icons, although not entirely (what I have called the Fall has no equivalent in Scott’s typology whereas her fourth theme is only partially captured in my discussion of the Home Front). This serves to highlight the fact that the history of feminism is closely correlated with, but nevertheless distinct from, the history of women and, indeed, the history of gender. For a more recent discussion of the historiography of ‘women and gender in/and the Great War’, see part 2 of the authoritative WINTER, J. (dir.) The Cambridge History of the First World War. Volume 3, Civil Society, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014, 771 p.
J. WINTER & A. PROST, The Great War in History: Debates and Controversies, 1914 to the Present, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005, chapter 1.
Richard EVANS, The Feminists: Women’s Emancipation Movements in Europe, America and Australasia, 1840-1920, London and Sydney: Croom Helm, Barnes & Noble, 1977, p. 39, fn. 1.
David MITCHELL, Women on the Warpath: the Story of the Women of the First World War, London: Jonathan Cape, 1965, p. xvi. See also, Millicent Garrett FAWCETT, What I Remember, London: Adelphi Terrace, 1924, p. 226; and Ray STRACHEY, The Cause: A Short History of the Women’s Movement in Great Britain, London: Virago, 1978 [1928], chapter XVIII.
David MITCHELL, ibid., pp. xv-xvi.
Millicent Garrett FAWCETT, The Women’s Victory – and After: Personal Reminiscences, 1911-1918, London: Sidgwick and Jackson Limited, 1920, p. 106.
Richard EVANS, op. cit., p. 222.
This view had been defended in the interwar years by Sylvia Pankhurst. See Sylvia PANKHURST, The Home Front: a Mirror to Life in England During the First World War; Forward by the Rt. Hon. Mrs Shirley Williams; Introduction by Richard Pankhurst, London: Cresset Library, 1987 [1932]. See also Brian HARRISON, Separate Spheres: the Opposition to Women’s Suffrage in Britain, London: Croom Held Ltd., 1978, p. 221.
Richard EVANS, op. cit., p. 222.
Richard EVANS, ibid., p. 210.
Richard EVANS, ibid., p. 211.
Richard EVANS, ibid., p. 233.
Richard EVANS, ibid., p. 228.
Dale SPENDER, There’s Always Been a Women’s Movement This Century, London: Pandora Press, 1983. See also, Dale SPENDER, Feminist Theorists: Three Centuries of Women’s Intellectual Traditions, London: The Women’s Press Limited, 1983; and Dale SPENDER, Time and Tide Wait For No Man, London: Pandora Press, 1984.
An eloquent articulation of this argument can be found in Rosalind DELMAR, “What Is Feminism?”, pp. 8-33 in J. MITCHELL & A. OAKLEY (eds.), What Is Feminism?, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986.
Banks distinguished three strands of feminism in Britain in the nineteenth-century, the egalitarian, the socialist and the evangelical. See Olive BANKS, Faces of Feminism: A Study of Feminism as a Social Movement, New York and Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd., 1981. A particularly helpful account of historians’ increasing frustration with the initial definition can be found in Karen OFFEN, “Defining feminism: a comparative historical approach”, Signs, vol. 14, issue 1, 1988, pp. 123-31.
For socialist feminists, this meant bringing into the history of feminism individuals and organizations that had been previously seen as sitting outside of that story. For instance, in his important study, Richard Evans had drawn a distinction between two wings of the women’s movement, one ‘socialist’ and the other ‘feminist’ (see op. cit., p. 243). This made sense so long as feminism was defined as he had suggested. But as soon as the term was given a broader acceptation, the same groups now appeared as the ‘socialist’ and ‘liberal’ wings of nineteenth-century ‘feminism’.
For an outstanding study of the camp see Sasha ROSENEIL, Disarming Patriarchy: Feminism and Political Action at Greenham, Buckingham: Open University Press, 1995.
Jill LIDDINGTON, op. cit., p. 2, emphasis original.
For a detailed account of the congress see Anne WILTSHER, Most Dangerous Women, London: Pandora Press, 1985.
The literature here is vast. In addition to the studies already cited, one may profitably consult Jill LIDDINGTON, “The Women’s Peace Crusade: the History of a Forgotten Campaign”, pp. 180-98 in Dorothy THOMPSON (ed.), Over Our Dead Bodies: Women Against the Bomb, London: Virago Press, 1983; Sandi E. COOPER, “Women’s Participation in European Peace Movements: the Struggle to Prevent World War I”, pp. 51-75 in R.R. PIERSON & S. BROADRIBB (eds.), Women and Peace: Theoretical, Historical and Practical Perspectives, London: Croom Helm, 1987; Deborah GORHAM, “Vera Brittain, Flora MacDonald Denison and the Great War: the Failure of Non-Violence”, 137-148 in R. R. PIERSON & S. BROADRIBB (eds.), Women and Peace: Theoretical, Historical and Practical Perspectives, London: Croom Helm, 1987; Claire M. TYLEE, “ “Maleness run riot” – the Great War and women’s resistance to militarism”, Women’s Studies International Forum, Vol. 11, No. 3, 1988, pp. 199-210; Sybil OLDFIELD, Women Against the Iron Fist: Alternatives to Militarism, 1900-1989, London: Basil Blackwell, 1989; Joyce BERKMAN, “Feminism, War, and Peace Politics: The Case of World War One”, pp. 141-160 in ELSHTAIN, J.B. & TOBIAS, S. (eds.), Women, Militarism, and War: Essays in History, Politics, and Social Theory, Savage: Rowman & Littlefield, 1990.
Jo VELLACOTT-NEWBERRY, “Anti-war suffragists”, History, Vol. LXII, 1977, pp. 411-425.
Jo VELLACOTT, “Feminist Consciousness and the First World War”, p. 121 in R. R. PIERSON & S. BROADRIBB (eds.), Women and Peace: Theoretical, Historical and Practical Perspectives, London: Croom Helm, 1987.
Jo VELLACOTT, ibid., p. 121.
Jo VELLACOTT, ibid., p. 116.
Jo VELLACOTT, ibid., p. 126.
Vellacott’s arguments fit into a broader historiographical pattern, as a number of scholars argued for a rehabilitation of the constitutionalist suffragists whose significance they felt had been overlooked by the constant attention paid to the militant suffragettes. Doubtless the most sophisticated of those studies was Sandra Stanley HOLTON, Feminism and Democracy: Women’s Suffrage and Reform Politics in Britain, 1900-1918, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. See chapters 6 and 7, as well as the postscript, for Holton’s assessment of the Great War’s impact on suffrage organizations and suffragists’ ideas. More detailed and less definitive than Vellacott’s, her analysis paints however a similar picture: the organizational reconfigurations of the movement caused by the war can be roughly mapped on to pre-war ideological differences between “democratic suffragists” and their more conservative allies.
KAMESTER, M. & VELLACOTT, J. (eds.), Militarism Versus Feminism: Writings on Women and War / Catherine Marshall, C.K. Ogden and Mary Sargant Florence, London: Virago, 1987, pp. 20 and 1 respectively. The first quote is taken from C. K. Ogden, a male suffragist, whom had used it to describe the Congress in the Hague.
Joan W. SCOTT, “Gender: a useful category of historical analysis”, The American Historical Review, Vol. 91, No. 5, Dec. 1986, pp. 1053-1075. There is a vast literature questioning the scholarly purchase and political wisdom of this move. Three well-known contributions are Linda GORDON, “Gender and the politics of history (review)”, Signs, Vol. 15, Issue 4, Summer 1990, pp. 853-858; Laura Lee DOWNS, “If “woman” is just an empty category, then why am I afraid to walk alone at night? Identity politics meets the postmodern subject”, Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 35, 1993, pp. 414-437; and Joan HOFF, “Gender as a postmodern category of paralysis”, Women’s Studies International Forum, Vol. 17, Issue 4, 1994, pp. 443-447.
Joan W. SCOTT, “Introduction”, p. 3 in Joan W. SCOTT, Gender and the Politics of History, New York: Columbia University Press, 1999.
Joan W. SCOTT, “Gender: a useful category of historical analysis”, The American Historical Review, Vol. 91, No. 5, Dec. 1986, p. 1055: ‘the response of most nonfeminist historians has been acknowledgement and then separation or dismissal’.
Joan W. SCOTT, , “Introduction”, p. 6 in Joan W. SCOTT, Gender and the Politics of History, New York: Columbia University Press, 1999.
Denise RILEY, “Am I that Name?”: Feminism and the Category of “Women” in History, Basingstoke: Macmillan Press, 1988, pp. 1-2 and 5 respectively.
Antoinette BURTON, “‘History’ is Now: feminist theory and the production of historical feminisms”, Women’s History Review, Vol. 1, Issue 1, 1992, pp. 33 and 26 respectively.
Jacqueline DE VRIES, “Gendering Patriotism: Emmeline and Christabel Pankhurst and World War One”, pp. 77, 77 and 81 respectively in Sybil OLDFIELD, This Working-Day World: Women’s Lives and Culture(s) in Britain, 1914-1945, London: Taylor & Francis, 1994. See also Cheryl R. JORGENSEN-EARP, Speeches and Trials of the Militant Suffragettes: The Women’s Social and Political Union, 1903- 1918, London: Associated University Press, 1999, pp. 147-151.
Susan Kingsley KENT, Making Peace: the Reconstruction of Gender in Interwar Britain, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993, p. 8.
Susan Kingsley KENT, ibid., chapter 1.
Susan Kingsley KENT, ibid., p. 17.
This was a point Kent had made in an earlier article: Susan Kingsley KENT, “The politics of sexual difference: World War I and the demise of British feminism”, Journal of British Studies, Vol. 27, Issue 3, July 1988, pp. 232-253. The title could not be clearer: the historical lesson feminists must take from this period of British feminism’s history is that arguments by women’s advocates that concentrate on sexual difference rather than sexual equality lead to political dead-ends.
Nicoletta GULLACE, The Blood of Our Sons: Men, Women, and the Renegotiation of British Citizenship during the Great War, Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002, p. 10.
Nicoletta GULLACE, ibid., p. 2.
Nicoletta GULLACE, ibid., pp. 10 and 6 respectively
Nicoletta GULLACE, ibid., p.5, my emphasis.
Nicoletta GULLACE, ibid., p.130
Nicoletta GULLACE, ibid., p. 5 and chapters 6 and 8.
Jo VELLACOTT, Pacifists, Patriots and the Vote: the Erosion of Democratic Suffragism in Britain During the First World War, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.
J. WINTER & A.PROST, op. cit., p. 211.
I have made this point in greater depth here: Marc LEFEBVRE, Feminism and the Challenge of War: Responses of the British Women’s Suffrage Movement to the Outbreak of the Great War, unpublished PhD Thesis, University of London, 2009.
Compare for instance, Judith SABROSKY, From Rationality to Liberation: the Evolution of Feminist Ideology, London: Greenwood Press, 1979; Olive BANKS, op. cit.; T. AKKERMAN & S. STUURMAN (eds.), Perspectives on Feminist Political Thought in European History: from the Middle Ages to the Present, London and New York: Routledge, 1998; and Valerie BRYSON, Feminist Political Theory: An Introduction, London: Macmillan, 2003.
For the former see, for instance, Jean Bethke ELSHTAIN, Women and War, Brighton: Harvester Press, 1987. For the latter, see Martin CEADEL, Pacifism in Britain 1914-1945: The Defining of Faith, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980 and Martin CEADEL, Thinking About Peace and War, Oxford: Oxford Univesity Press, 1987.
Jill LIDDINGTON, op. cit., p. 26, my emphasis.
Dale SPENDER, Time and Tide Wait For No Man, London: Pandora Press, 1984, p. 2.
See for instance Zillah R. EISENSTEIN, Sexual Decoys: Gender, Race and War in Imperial Democracy, London and New York: Zed Books, 2007; Cynthia COCKBURN, From Where We Stand: War, Women’s Activism and Feminist Analysis, London and New York: Zed Books, 2007; Cynthia ENLOE, Globalization and Militarism: Feminists Make the Link, Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007; R.L. RILEY & C.T. MOHANTY & M.B. PRATT (eds.), Feminism and War: Confronting U.S. Imperialism, London and New York: Zed Books Editors, 2008.
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