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Notes
Minutes of the meeting – Groupe informel Heller, April 28, 1986, Groupe informel Heller, 8D2-28, Fonds Charles Morazé – Archives de la FMSH.
Today, its teachers-researchers’ work represents almost 10% of the cited sources in French social science academic publications. Report of the Cours des comptes, March 3, 2021, online: https://page.hn/0fgvc6 (accessed on January 17, 2025).
Annales, 2020; Coutau-Bégarie, 1989, 275-291; Mazon, 1988; Tournès, 2013, 323-331.
I complemented my archival investigation at numerous of institutional archives, such as EHESS, Sciences-Po, Archives nationales; and personal archives, such as Braudel archives (Académie française and Archives nationales), Morazé archives (Fondation Maison des sciences de l’Homme), Lucien Febvre (Archives nationales).
Malinvaud, 1996, 93.
Monneau, 2016, 418.
Pollak, 1976, 106.
Historians of social sciences have focused their attention on research programs (Pooley and Solovey, 2010 on the Ford Foundation’s Behavioral Sciences Program), on patrons themselves (Solovey 2013, 2020 on the National Science Foundation), on disciplines (Van Horn et al., 2017 on the contributions of business to economic), or on a broader scope (such as Crowther-Heyck, 2006 on the shift in patronage for the postwar behavioral and social sciences).
On RF institutional achievements, see Gemelli, 1995; Mazon, 1988; and Tournès, 2013. On RF intellectual achievements, see De Rouvray, 2005 on economic history and Popa, 2015, 2016, 2017 on Area Studies.
Benest, 2022.
For their useful comments and suggestions, I thank the Revue d’histoire des sciences humaines’ two anonymous referees and its editor, Olivier Orain. A very first version of this article was presented at the conference « L’État des économistes. La science économique face à la puissance publique (xxe-xxie siècles) », Université de Picardie, Amiens, 2019. My gratitude extends to the Rockefeller Archive Center (Sleepy Hollow, N.Y.) and its staff—notably Mary Ann Quinn, Tom Rosenbaum†, Patricia Rosenfield, and James Allen Smith; to the service des archives de l’EHESS (Paris) and its staff—Magali Nié and Naomi Russo; and to Yann Potin of the Archives nationales (Paris), Goulven Lebrech of Mission archives de Sciences Po (Paris), and Fabienne Queyroux and Cécile Bouet of the bibliothèque de l’Institut de France (Paris). All errors and omissions remain my responsibility.
Nord, 2012, 145.
Created in 1946, after the fusion of the Service national de la statistique (SNS) and the French Navy’s Service des études économiques (SEE), INSEE had the mission of providing the administration with economic and demographic statistics (Touchelay, 1993, 211-28). The ministère des Finances created the Bureau de statistiques et d’études financières (BSEF) in 1947. As the main governmental and statistical service, it provided quantitative information in order to “improve public financial management and decision-making in the field of economic action” (Terray, 2002, 52-53).
Desrosières, 1994. Historically, in France, the grands corps d’État were composed of high-ranking civil servants who had completed their training as engineers in prestigious grandes écoles and were destined to work with State services and public industries for providing public utilities, such as the corps of Ponts et chaussées (roads), the corps of Mines (mining), or the corps of Eaux et forêts (agriculture). On French grands corps d’État, see Suleiman, 2016 [1978].
Touchelay, 1993, 211-28.
Desrosières, 1995.
At the Institut d’études politiques, economics represented roughly one third of the courses (Dreyfus, 2011, 128). At the École nationale d’administration (ENA), economics represented roughly one quarter of the courses (Kolopp, 2013, 58).
Quoted in Fourquet, 1980, 254.
Baudin, 1945.
Fisher, 1983.
In 1916, Joseph H. Willits received his PhD in economics from the University of Pennsylvania. His research endorsed institutionalist methodological approaches based on empirical investigation (De Rouvray, 2005, 83). He continued to support institutional economics throughout his career. Prior to his tenure as head of the Rockefeller Foundation’s Division of Social Sciences (1939-1955), he held significant academic and administrative positions, including director of the Industrial Economics Research Department at the University of Pennsylvania (1921-1939) and dean of the Wharton School of Business (1933-1939). After helping to establish the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER—see footnote 75) with the support of the Division of Social Sciences, he became its first president (1934-1936) and later served as its executive director (1936-1939).
Morgan and Rutherford, 1998.
Quoted in Rutherford, 2005, 12.
Willits explained that “In France, the issues of adjustment or conflict between Communism and Western democracy appear in most acute form. She is the battleground or laboratory”, quoted by Stapleton, 2003, 108. Willits asked for weekly reports about “the program and policies proposed by the Communist Party in France.” Willits to Robert T. Crane, December 3, 1946, Crane, Robert Treat (Visit) 1946-1948, RG1.1 700S B23 F169 – Rockefeller Foundation Archive [RFA] – Rockefeller Archive Center [RAC].
“Makinsky Report”, RG2 S1945 B562 F3829 – RFA – RAC.
“Makinsky Report”, RG2 S1945 B562 F3829 – RFA – RAC.
“I asked him about the quality of economic training in the faculties of law. ‘Good for lawyers, but not so good for economists. No training in empirical research’”; Interview with Jeanneney, October 16, 1946, Willits Diaries – RFA – RAC.
Benest, 2022, 332-35.
“It is a far cry from the freedom of choice in English and American institutions to this system. If a truly political minister came in, one wonders what would happen to University freedom”; Interview with Rueff, October 14, 1946, Willits Diaries – RFA – RAC.
Morazé, 2007, 171.
The agrégation d’histoire is the national examination that certifies history teachers for high school instruction.
Morazé was involved in the creation of the IEP-Paris, and Léon Blum designated him to represent the French delegation at the founding conference of UNESCO (Morazé, 2007, 162).
“My competence in those times [the immediate post-war period, the author does not give a date] was that of a heretical economist” (Morazé, 2007, 151). “JM was more than ever impressed by Morazé: he is extremely bright and seems an admirable choice for the Committee’s secretary”; Interview with Charles Morazé and Robert Fawtier, May 5, 1947, John Marshall Diairies – RFA – RAC.
Under the supervision of the Ministry of National Education, the French director of Higher Education acted as a deputy minister of French higher education.
Interview with Pierre Auger, March 27, 1947, 500R EPHE RG12 S500 B16 F146 – RFA – RAC.
Febvre’s letter to the Rockefeller foundation, November 28, 1947, 500R EPHE RG12 S500 B16 F146 – RFA – RAC.
“The final purpose of the section is the theoretical and practical formation of social scientists. It would provide teaching, technical and research staff for the Universities and Faculties of Law, the Government and private institutions, the National Center for Scientific Research/Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS). A real improvement in the status of the social sciences in France can thus be expected”; “Application for a grant to the École pratique des hautes études”, Pierre Auger to Rockefeller Foundation, November 5, 1947, 500R EPHE RG12 S500 B16 F146 – RFA – RAC.
“Grant Acceptation for the Sixth Section”, December 2-3, 1947, 500R EPHE RG12 S500 B16 F146 – RFA – RAC.
“Lucien Febvre’s report”, 1953, Fonds secrétariat de la direction EHESS (Braudel), 20180531/1, Archives nationales [AN].
André Piatier was in charge of the study of economics in the Navy during WWII and was involved in both the finance and foreign ministries after the war. Pierre Coutin was ministerial counselor at Ministry of National Economy between 1945 and 1946, and participated in the CGP from 1947. Jean Gottmann was involved at the Ministry of National Economy in 1945, while Charles Bettelheim was ministerial counselor at the Ministry of Labor between 1944 and 1948. Dossier des enseignants, Fonds général, Archives EHESS.
Bulmer and Bulmer, 1981; Stapleton, 2003.
Jean Lhomme (1950, 59) hoped “that action in turn may benefit from the progress of knowledge”, and André Marchal (1953, 189) described “a practical goal [for economics]: to predict historical evolution, to guide action”.
The mathematical abstraction in economics did not convince Willits, the director of the SSD. After meeting Allais, the leading French mathematical economist of the time, Willits lamented: “He [Allais] may be as limited in his preoccupation with a mathematical method to the exclusion of any other as are the faculties of Law from their point of view. I remember A. Marshall’s dictum: ‘In approaching a question of economic policy, take those things that are measurable first, they will constitute somewhat less than half the total.’” Interview with Allais, October 21, 1946; Willits Diaries – RFA – RAC.
Charles Bettelheim (“L’Allemagne en 1948 [Problèmes économiques et sociaux]”), Pierre Coutin (“Économies paysannes”), Jean Fourastié (“Méthode comptable”), Georges Friedmann (“Machinisme et psychologie”), Alexandre Koyré (“Science et machinisme”), Ernest Labrousse (“Histoire et statistique économique”), Jean Lhomme (“Méthode statistique”), Charles Morazé (“Histoire économique”), Alfred Pose (“Banque et Crédit”), Jean Weiller (“Échanges internationaux”).
Charles Bettelheim (“Économie politique et problèmes du travail”), Pierre Crochet-Damais (“Économie des transports”), Jean Gottman (“Géographie des matières premières”), Bertrand Nogaro (“Méthode historique, méthode économique”), Jean Lhomme (“Structures économiques, structures sociales”), Victor Rouquet la Garrigue (“Économie mathématique et économétrie appliquée”).
For the year 1949, of the 4.6 million francs from the ministry of Education for the Section, 2 million were dedicated to economics—which is twice more than for history and four times more than for sociology. In 1951, 3 million francs, which was more than half of the Section’s budget from the government, was directed to economics. It was only in 1953 that the distribution of funds was balanced among the disciplines: the centre d’études économiques (CEE) and the centre de recherche historique (CRH) each received 2.25 million francs.
Note unsigned, dated by the archivist, Fonds secrétariat direction EHESS (Braudel), 20180531/1, AN.
Lane to Willits, December 3, 1951, FNSP French Economy 1952-1953 RG 1.2 S500 B18 F161 – RFA – RAC.
See the review of Fourastié’s “La méthode comptable dans la science économique. Principes généraux” by Febvre (1949).
Document entitled “En moins de trois ans la VIe section a publié”, undated, Fonds secrétariat direction EHESS (Braudel), 20180531/2, AN.
Margairaz and Rousso, 1987, 26.
On the quasi-absence of academic economists in postwar French planning, see Dard (1999).
Fourastié quoted in Rousso, 1986, 83.
Febvre to the general director of higher education, May 30, 1951, Fonds secrétariat direction EHESS (Braudel), 20180531/2, AN. Emphasis in original.
Coleman, 1993, 130.
Andrieu, 1994, 123.
Delattre, 2005[2003].
Henri Hierche to Braudel or Febvre, June 3, 1953, Fonds secrétariat direction EHESS (Braudel), 20180531/3, AN.
Since its creation, the Sixth Section has had its own system of recruitment, by election by an electoral college composed of all professor of the establishment. Regardless of his or her field of study, each candidate is elected by all the members of the institution’s faculty.
“Minutes of the 17th January 1954 Council meeting”, Fonds secrétariat direction EHESS (Braudel), 20180531/2, AN.
“Preparation note for the January 1954 session of the Section Council”, undated, Fonds secrétariat direction EHESS (Braudel), 20180531/3, AN.
“Minutes of the 17th January 1954 Council meeting”, Fonds secrétariat direction EHESS (Braudel), 20180531/2, AN.
“Minutes of the 7th March 1954 Council meeting”, Assemblée des enseignants, Archives EHESS.
“Draft protocol between High Studies School and APB”, undated, Fonds secrétariat direction EHESS (Braudel), 20180531/3, AN.
“Yearbook of the Sixth Section 1956-1957”, Annuaires, Fonds Général, Archives EHESS.
“List of the audience of the Escarra’s seminar”, February 2, 1955, Fonds secrétariat direction EHESS (Braudel), 20180531/3, AN.
See footnote 46.
Febvre to the General director of Higher Education, July 2, 1951, Fonds secrétariat direction EHESS (Braudel), 20180531/2, AN.
On the Institut scientifique de recherches économiques et sociales [ISRES], see Tournès (2006).
Willits, 401 LSE RG2(1951) B536 F3586 – RFA – RAC.
“In combination, they form, I believe, a good administrative structure for academic economic research”; Lane to J.H. Willits, August 1, 1952, FNSP French Economy 1952-1953 RG 1.2 S500 B18 F161 – RFA – RAC.
Lane to Willits, August 1, 1952, FNSP French Economy 1952-1953 RG 1.2 S500 B18 F161 – RFA – RAC.
Lane to Willits, September 25, 1952, FNSP French Economy 1952-1953 RG 1.2 S500 B18 F161 – RFA – RAC.
Meynaud to Lane, December 19, 1952, FNSP French Economy 1952-1953 RG 1.2 S500 B18 F161 – RFA – RAC.
The National Bureau of Economic Research is perhaps the most influential economics think tank in the US. It defines itself as “a private, nonpartisan organization that facilitates cutting-edge investigation and analysis of major economic issues. It disseminates research findings to academics, public- and private-sector decision-makers, and the public”, online: https://www.nber.org/about-nber (accessed June 12, 2024). “The evolution of the structures of the French economy”, December 18, 1952, FNSP French Economy 1952-1953 RG 1.2 S500 B18 F161 – RFA – RAC.
Lane to Willits, December 28, 1952, FNSP French Economy 1952-1953 RG 1.2 S500 B18 F161 – RFA – RAC.
“Acceptance of the grant”, February 26, 1953, FNSP French Economy 1952-1953 RG 1.2 S500 B18 F161 – RFA – RAC.
“Note about the use of ‘crédits Rockefeller’ by the Centre d’études économiques” written by Meynaud, October 2, 1954, FNSP French Economy 1955-1958 RG 1.2 S500 B18 F162 – RFA – RAC.
“Minutes of the General Assembly”, Compte rendu de l’assemblée des enseignants, Fonds Général, Archives EHESS.
I consulted the two collections (Perroux collection is preserved at Imec [Caen, France], Meynaud collection is preserved at Sciences Po [Paris, France]) in which I didn’t found any glue to understand the real cause of the collective resignation and the archivists confirmed me that there is not document about that point.
On Perroux collaboration see Simmons, 2015, 118-126; Cohen, 2006; Brisset and Fèvre, 2021.
Gemelli, 1995, 306.
Dreyfus, 2011, 114-127.
Chapsal to Gillette (Foundation Rockefeller), May 27, 1955, FNSP French Economy 1955-1958, RG 1.2 S500 B18 F162 – RFA – RAC.
Interview with Clemens Heller, June 14, 1955, KW Thompson diaries-1955 – RFA – RAC.
“However the economists in the Centre represented a conservative tradition which CH [Clemens Heller] argues has not been particularly productive. The economists in the Centre had been associated with the École de droit and had blocked the entry of other economists of a more practical orientation”; Interview with Heller, June 14, 1955, KW Thompson diaries-1955 – RFA – RAC.
Minutes of the meeting between Braudel and French economists, December 20, 1955, Fonds secrétariat direction EHESS (Braudel), 20180531/3, AN.
On Guilbaud and French reception of game theory, see Nessah, Tazdaït and Vahabi, 2021; On Guilbaud and Operations research and cybernetic see Le Roux, 2018.
“The future of the Centre d’études économiques will, of course, be a matter of concern to the officers of the Foundations”; “Excerpt from a K.W. Thompson’s letter to C. Heller”, August 31, 1955, FNSP French Economy 1955-1958 RG 1.2 S500 B18 F162 – RFA – RAC.
Interview with Robert Marjolin, October 20, 1955, KW Thompson diaries-1955 – RFA – RAC.
Fernand Braudel to Charles Morazé, January 11, 1951, and Charles Morazé to Fernand Braudel, January 16, 1951; Correspondances Lucien Febvre, FLF (NC)/70 – 591 AP – EHESS–AN.
“Excerpt of an interview of Heller by D’Arms”, December 9, 1954, R.G. 1.2, 500 S École pratique des hautes études B16 F147 – RFA – RAC.
The Area Studies program was established in 1955 with a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation. Initially hesitant to support the program, the RF agreed to fund it after Braudel assured them that the research would not promote communist ideology, specifically a Marxist perspective. Additionally, Braudel shifted the research focus toward regions under communist influence, such as Russia and China, instead of the initially planned Islamic and Eastern areas. (Benest 2019, 161-70)
Febvre had deep interest in economics, as demonstrated these numerous economics book review in the Annales review. For instance, Febvre (1951).
On that topic in postwar France, see De Rouvray, 2005, chap 5.
“Historians, we who, with sociologists, are the only ones who have a right of access to everything that belongs to man, it is our profession, our torment too”; Braudel, 1950, 44. Emphasized in the text.
Are in the meeting : Dumontier (director of the service de la conjoncture et des études économiques de l’INSEE), François Bloch-Lainé (director of the Caisse des dépôts et de consignation), Coutin (Sixth Section), Etienne Hirsch (Director of the Commissariat général au plan), Guilbaud (Sixth Section), Rottier (Centre de recherche et de documentation sur la consommation), Meyer (direction of the service de la conjoncture et des études économiques de l’INSEE), Jean Ripert (Commissariat général au plan), Clouzon (Institut de statistique), Yves Ullmo (ENA). “Minutes of the meeting between Braudel and French economists”, December 20, 1955, Fonds secrétariat direction EHESS (Braudel), 20180531/3, AN.
“Minutes of the meeting between Braudel and French economists”, December 20, 1955, Fonds secrétariat direction EHESS (Braudel), 20180531/3, AN.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
The cumulative director of study of the Sixth Section are a specific appointment: the scholars have in charge a seminar (around 12 classes a year) in the Section but have no more charge and kept a full position in an others academic institution or in administration.
On February 1952, the BSEF was renamed SEEF.
“The Centre d’études économiques of the Sixieme (Coutin) is now ‘mediocre’ and scarcely merits further RF support”; Interview with Clemens Heller, October 9, 1958, FNSP French Economy 1955-1958 RG 1.2 S500 B18 F162 – RFA – RAC.
The following achievements of economists at the EHESS are investigated by Godechot (2011) and Benest (2024).
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