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Notes
This article is an expanded version of an earlier essay, “Divisible Mobility: Music in an Age of Cloud Computing,” originally published in The Oxford Handbook of Mobile Music Studies, Sumanth Gopinath and Jason Stanyek (eds.), New York, Oxford University Press, 2014, p. 75-102.
SRIVASTAVA Lara, “The Mobile Makes its Mark,” in Handbook of Mobile Communication Studies, James E. Katz (ed.), Cambridge (MA), MIT Press, 2008, p. 27.
Although it is far from universally adopted, mobile communication has made a considerable impact in developing nations as well, dramatically dwarfing the impact of the internet in those regions. Internet penetration in the continent of Africa, for example, was less than 1 percent in 2010, while cellphone usage increased exponentially, reaching over a third of the population (SMITH, David, “Africa Calling: Mobile Phone Usage Sees Record Rise After Huge Investment,” The Guardian, October 22, 2009). Likewise, on a global scale, despite the overall paucity of fixed-line infrastructure, mobile subscription in developing nations has risen from 12 million in 1995 to over 1.15 billion in 2005. In the least developed countries, cellular services (such as CDMA and GSM-type networks) outpace fixed-line services (copper networks) by a factor of seven (see SRIVASTAVA, Lara, “The Mobile Makes its Mark,” p. 23; and DONNER, Jonathan, “Shrinking Fourth World? Mobiles, Development, and Inclusion,” in Handbook of Mobile Communication Studies, op. cit., p. 30-41). It is true that patterns of mobile diffusion are uneven, often replicating and entrenching zones of poverty, illiteracy and geographical isolation; thereby producing “structurally irrelevant” producers and consumers within the global economy (see CASTELLS, Manuel, The Rise of the Network Society, Cambridge and Oxford, Blackwell, 1996, p. 135; and DONNER, Jonathan, “Shrinking Fourth World?,” p. 30). Yet the ascendency of basic, widespread, affordable mobile connectivity, and its concomitant naturalization, mainstreaming, and, above all, structural integration into economic networks of production and exchange, is inevitable today. To be sure, the use of mobile communication in developing nations differs considerably from that of the developed nations. In these regions mobile devices tend to be cheaper and boast considerably fewer applications than do smart-phones in developing nations. Users who cannot afford a mobile device frequently depend on communication centers to send text messages and make calls, and, for those who do own them, various cost-cutting techniques are adopted. For example, in Ghana people use their phones only for incoming calls (which are free with most prepaid business models); or users elude costs by “flashing” an agreed-upon ringing signal to communicate messages without actually speaking (OVERå, Ragnhild, “Mobile Traders and Mobile Phones in Ghana,” Handbook of Mobile Communication Studies, op. cit., p. 48). Nonetheless, with improvements in connectivity, broadband access, and affordability in these geographical areas, mobile devices, with enhanced computational capabilities, have become an integral aspect of social, national, and economic life in these zones as well. Occasionally, digital networks in the developing world have even outpaced those in the developed world. In Kenya and Tanzania, for example, M-Pesa, a mobile phone-based system for money transfers and microfinancing, was launched in 2007 by large local network operators. Before bitcoin could become mainstream in the industrial West, M-Pesa had become the dominant form for financial transactions in these African nations.
See VIRNO, Paulo, “Post-Fordist Semblance,” in SubStance, no. 112, 2007, p. 42-46; and LAZZARATO, Maurizio, “Immaterial Labor,” in Radical Thought in Italy, Paolo Virno and Michael Hardt (eds.), Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1996, p. 133-150.
RATLIFF, Ben, Every Song Ever: Twenty Ways to Listen in an Age of Musical Plenty, New York, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2016, p. 5.
WALKER, Rob, “The Song Decoders,” The New York Times, October 14, 2009.
TURKLE, Sherry, “Always-on / Always-on-you: The Tethered Self,” in Handbook of Mobile Communication Studies, op. cit.
AULETTA, Ken, Googled: The End of the World as We Knew It, New York, Penguin Press, 2009.
CARR, Nicholas, The Shallows: What the Internet Is Doing to Our Brains, New York and London: Norton & Co, 2010.
BENJAMIN, Walter, “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction,” in Illuminations, translated by Harry Zohn, New York, Schocken Books, 1969, p. 239 and p. 220.
ADORNO, Theodor W., Essays on Music, Richard Leppert (ed.), Berkeley, California University Press, 2002.
KITTLER, Friedrich, “The History of Communicative Media,” ctheory.net, July 30, 1996 (http://www.ctheory.net/articles.aspx?id=45, accessed March 17, 2011).
FRIEDMAN, Thomas L., “A Question from Lydia,” The New York Times, May 10, 2010, p. 10.
TURKLE, Sherry, “Always-on / Always-on-you: The Tethered Self,” in Handbook of Mobile Communication Studies, op. cit., p. 121.
Ibid., p. 129.
Ibid.
Ibid., p. 134.
WEINGARTEN, Chris, “Don’t Believe the Hype Machine,” Village Voice blog, April 2010 (http://blogs.villagevoice.com/music/archives/2010/04/dont_believe_th.php, accessed March 17, 2011).
LANIER, Jaron, You Are Not A Gadget: A Manifesto, New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 2010, p. 79.
FARAONE, Chris, “How the Echo Nest is Powering the Internet’s Musical Brain,” Fastcompany Magazine, September 14, 2011 (http://www.fastcompany.com/magazine/159/music-database, accessed August 6, 2013).
See DU GAY, Paul, HALL, Stuart, JANES, Linda, MACKAY, Hugh, and NEGUS, Keith, Doing Cultural Studies: The Story of the Sony Walkman, Milton Keynes, The Open University, 1997; and FORTUNATI, Leopoldina, “The Mobile Phone as Technological Artefact,” in Thumb Culture: The Meaning of Mobile Phones for Society, P. Glotz, S. Bertschi, and C. Locke (eds.), Bielefeld, Transcript Verlag, 2005, p. 149-160.
BULL, Michael, “No Dead Air! The iPod and the Culture of Mobile Listening,” Leisure Studies 24, no. 4, 2005, p. 347-348.
ARKETTE, Sophie, “Sounds like City,” Theory, Culture & Society 21, no. 1, 2004, p. 164.
Ibid., p. 164-165.
New Yorker, February 15 and 22, 2010, p. 37.
SHIRKY, Clay, Cognitive Surplus: Creativity and Generosity in a Connected Age, New York, Penguin Press, 2010.
SHIRKY, Clay, “The Music Business and the Big Flip,” first published January 21, 2003 on the “Networks, Economics, and Culture” mailing list (http://www.shirky.com/writings/music_flip.html, accessed March 17, 2011); and SHIRKY, Clay, “Clay Shirky on ‘Here comes everybody’,” 2008 (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K3EDFRa6JNc, accessed March 17, 2011).
BENKLER, Yochai, The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom, New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 2006, p. 87 and p. 59.
Ibid., p. 60.
Ibid., p. 63 and p. 71.
SHIRKY, Clay, “Clay Shirky on ‘Here comes everybody’.”
BENKLER, Yochai, The Wealth of Networks, op. cit., p. 69.
GEIGER, Stuart R., and RIBES, David, “The Work of Sustaining Order in Wikipedia: The Banning of a Vandal,” Proceedings of the 2010 ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work, 2010 (http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1718918.1718941, accessed March 17, 2011).
BARON, Naomi, “Adjusting the Volume: Technology and Multitasking in Discourse Control,” in Handbook of Mobile Communication Studies, op. cit., p. 181.
MITCHELL, W. J., Placing Words: Symbols, Space and the City, Cambridge, MIT Press, 2005.
Ibid., p. 8.
BEER, David, “Tune out: Music, soundscapes and the urban mise-en-scène,” Information, Communication & Society 10, no. 6, 2007, p. 857.
Ibid., p. 854 and p. 860.
Ibid., p. 847.
Ibid., p. 855 and p. 857.
KATZ, James E, LEVER, Katie M., and CHEN, Yi-Fan, “Mobile Music as Environmental Control and Prosocial Entertainment,” in Handbook of Mobile Communication Studies, op. cit., p. 367.
BASSOLI, Arianna, MOORE, Julian, and AGAMANOLIS, Stefan, “tunA: Synchronised Music-Sharing on Handheld Devices,” Human Connectedness Group, Media Lab Europe, 2004 (http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.59.3016, accessed March 17, 2011).
WILLIAMS, Amanda, ROBLES, Erica, and DOURISH, Paul, “Urbane-ing the City: Examining and Refining the Assumptions Behind Urban Informatics,” in Handbook of Research on Urban Informatics: The Practice and Promise of the Real-Time City, M. Foth (ed.), Hershey, Information Science Reference, 2009, p. 8-9.
RHEINGOLD, Howard, “Mobile Media and Political Collective Action,” in Handbook of Mobile Communication Studies, op. cit., p. 225-226.
BULL, Michael, Sound Moves: iPod Culture and Urban Experience, London and New York, Routledge, 2007, p. 121-122.
Ibid., p. 122-123.
Ibid., p. 122 and p. 123-124.
COLOMBO, Gianluca, “Actualising Bergson’s Lesson: A Post-post-modernist Perspective,” Journal of Management and Governance 13, no. 3, 2009, p. 262.
GUERLAC, Suzanne, Thinking in Time: An Introduction to Henri Bergson, Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 2006, p. 206.
Ibid., p. 159 (Guerlac quotes Bergson).
Ibid.
BULL, Michael, Sound Moves, op. cit., p. 127.
LANIER, Jaron, You Are Not A Gadget, op cit., p. 11.
RIBES, David, and FINHOLT, Thomas A., “The Long Now of Technology Infrastructure: Articulating Tensions in Development,” Journal of the Association for Information Systems, no. 10, 2009, p. 378.
STAR, Susan L., “Invisible Work and Silenced Dialogues in Knowledge Representation,” in Women, Work and Computerization, I. V. Eriksson et al. (eds.), North-Holland, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1991, p. 81-92.
SCHERZINGER, Martin, “Enforced Deterritorialization; or the Trouble with Musical Politics,” Sounding the Virtual: Gilles Deleuze and the Philosophy of Music, Brian Hulse and Nick Nesbitt (eds.), Surrey, Ashgate, 2010, p. 124.
SOPHIA, Zoë, “Container Technologies,” Hypatia 15, no. 2, 2000, p. 181-201.
See HEIDEGGER, Martin, Poetry, Language, Thought, New York, Harper and Row, 1971; and HEIDEGGER, Martin, Basic Writings, New York, Harper and Row, 1977.
SOUZA E SILVA, Adriana, “Interfaces of Hybrid Spaces,” in The Cell Phone Reader: Essays in Social Transformation, Anandam Kavoori and Noah Arceneaux (eds.), New York, Peter Lang, 2006, p. 20.
WEISER, Mark, “The Computer for the 21st Century,” Scientific American, September 1991, p. 94.
SOUZA E SILVA, Adriana, “Interfaces of Hybrid Spaces,” p. 21.
JANSEN, Luke, “Google vs. Apple: Who Will Win?,” 2010 (http://www.scps.nyu.edu/areas-of-study/graphic-communications/news-and-events/google-vs-apple-who-will-win.html, accessed March 17, 2011).
Quoted in SOUZA E SILVA, Adriana, “Interfaces of Hybrid Spaces,” p. 22.
KHATCHADOURIAN, Raffi, “No Secrets,” The New Yorker, June 7, 2010, p. 42.
BULL, Michael, Sound Moves, op. cit., p. 124.
BEER, David, “Tune out: Music, soundscapes and the urban mise-en-scène,” p. 857.
STERNE, Jonathan, “The MP3 as Cultural Artifact,” New Media and Society, no. 5, 2006, p. 825-842.
WIKSTRÖM, Patrik, The Music Industry: Music in the Cloud, Cambridge, Polity, 2009, p. 6.
KUSEK, D. and LEONARD, G., The Future of Music: Manifesto for the Digital Music Revolution, Boston, Berklee Press Publications, 2005.
STERNE, Jonathan, “Is Music a Thing?,” presentation at New York University, February 2009.
International Federation of the Phonograph Industry (IFPI), The Digital Music Report 2008 (http://www.ifpi.org, accessed March 17, 2011).
WIKSTRÖM, Patrik, The Music Industry: Music in the Cloud, p. 7.
TAPSCOTT, Don, and WILLIAMS, Anthony D., Wikinomics: How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything, New York, Penguin, 2006, p. 137.
WIKSTRÖM, Patrik, The Music Industry: Music in the Cloud, p. 174.
SINNREICH, Aram, Mashed Up: Music, Technology, and the Rise of Configurable Culture, Amherst, University of Massachusetts Press, 2010.
TERRANOVA, Tiziana, Network Culture: Politics for the Information Age, Ann Arbor, Pluto Books, 2004.
JENKINS, Henry, Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide, New York, New York University Press, 2006.
WIKSTRÖM, Patrik, The Music Industry: Music in the Cloud, p. 148, p. 162, and p. 159.
BYRNE, David, “David Byrne’s Survival Strategies for Emerging Artists—and Megastars,” Wired, December 18, 2007, p. 2 (http://www.wired.com/entertainment/music/magazine/16-01/ff_byrne?currentPage=all, accessed August 6, 2013).
Ibid., p. 5 and p. 8.
Quoted in LAPLANTE, Alice, “Digital Music is the Future of the Music Industry,” in What Is the Future of the Music Industry?, Roman Espejo (ed.), Detroit, Greenhaven Press, 2009, p. 29.
Ibid., p. 28; and WEINGARTEN, Chris, “Don’t Believe the Hype Machine.”
BYRNE, David, “David Byrne’s Survival Strategies for Emerging Artists—and Megastars,” p. 2.
LAPLANTE, Alice, “Digital Music is the Future of the Music Industry,” p. 22.
Ibid., p. 26-27.
BYRNE, David, “David Byrne’s Survival Strategies for Emerging Artists—and Megastars,” p. 2.
SHIRKY, Clay, “The Music Business and the Big Flip,” p. 2; and BYRNE, David, “David Byrne’s Survival Strategies for Emerging Artists—and Megastars,” p. 2.
ROSENBLOOM, Stephanie, “But Will It Make You Happy?,” The New York Times, August 7, 2010.
Of course, attendant to live events are a host of material commodities, including physical formats (such as vinyl and CD), merchandise, and other diversified products.
WIKSTRÖM, Patrik, The Music Industry: Music in the Cloud, p. 90-91; STERNE, Jonathan, “Is Music a Thing?”.
TOPPING, Alexandra, “Collapse in Illegal Streaming and Boom in Streaming Brings Music to Executives Ears,” The Guardian, July 12, 2009.
For all its apparent resistance to commodified culture (occasionally even tinged by technophobia), the recent turn in recent academic writing away from hermeneutics and toward the value of liveness, presence, immediacy, and so on, should be assessed in relation to the ideological demands of shifting corporate interests toward affective experiences (see, for example, MASSUMI, Brian, Parables for the Virtual: Movement, Affect, Sensation, Durham, Duke University Press, 2002; GUMBRECHT, Hans Ulrich, Production of Presence: What Meaning Cannot Convey, Stanford, Stanford University Press, 2004; ABBATE, Carolyn, “Music: Drastic or Gnostic?,” Critical Inquiry 30, no. 3, 2004, p. 505-536; and others).
SEGAL, David, “Calling Almost Everyone’s Tune,” The New York Times, April 24, 2010, p. 7.
This is not to say that all live events are dominated by mainstream corporate funding. The thriving independent music scene is likewise primarily monetized by way of live events. In fact, the valorization of the live event is particularly symptomatic in the context of emergent local cultural practices. Take, for example, the “Sofar Sounds” events that emerged in New York City in the second decade of the 21st century. These events promised access to unknown (“secret”) musicians in intimate live settings. The events thereby loosen the grip of both the pre-recorded digital track and the attendant algorithm that characterizes online listening. In other words, this kind of cultural formation is the live stumble culture that is constitutively linked to the digitally mediated and ubiquitously ranked one.
WEINGARTEN, Chris, “Don’t Believe the Hype Machine.”
SHIRKY, Clay, “The Music Business and the Big Flip,” p. 2.
GOODMAN, Steve, Sonic Warfare: Sound, Affect, and the Ecology of Fear, Cambridge, MIT Press, 2010, p. 162.
RATLIFF, Ben, Every Song Ever: Twenty Ways to Listen in an Age of Musical Plenty, op. cit., p. 5-6.
LANIER, Jaron, You Are Not A Gadget: A Manifesto, p. 20 and p. 129.
Ibid., p. 31 and p. 48.
BENKLER, Yochai, The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom, op. cit., p. 53.
Ibid., p. 53-54.
Ibid., p. 37 and p. 55.
TERRANOVA, Tiziana, “Free Labor: Producing Culture for the Digital Economy,” Social Text 18, no. 2, 2000, p. 33.
LOHR, Steve, “Netflix Awards $1 Million Prize and Starts a New Contest,” The New York Times, September 21, 2009.
SCHERZINGER, Martin, “Enforced Deterritorialization; or the Trouble with Musical Politics,” p. 124-125.
BENKLER, Yochai, The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom, op. cit., p. 54.
Ibid., p. 55.
COSENTINO, Gabrielle, “‘Hacking’ the iPod: A Look Inside Apple’s Portable Music Player,” in Cybersounds: Essays on Virtual Music Culture, Michael D. Ayers (ed.), New York, Peter Lang, 2006, p. 196.
BYRNE, David, “David Byrne’s Survival Strategies for Emerging Artists—and Megastars,” p. 8.
BRANDT, Brian, “Is the Spotify Model Really the Answer?,” August 9, 2011 (http://www.newmusicbox.org/articles/is-the-spotify-model-really-the-answer/, accessed August 6, 2013).
MINSKER, Evan, “Thom Yorke and Nigel Godrich Pull Music From Spotify, Speak Out Against Their Business Model,” July 14, 2013 (http://pitchfork.com/news/51515-thom-yorke-and-nigel-godrich-pull-music-from-spotify-speak-out-against-their-business-model/, accessed August 6, 2013).
ANDERSON, Chris, The Long Tail: Why the Future of Music Is Selling Less of More, New York, Hyperion, 2008.
SINNREICH, Aram, “Today is Opposite Day,” presentation at New York University, March 2010.
LANIER, Jaron, You Are Not A Gadget: A Manifesto, op. cit., p. 83 and p. 86.
KELLY, Kevin, “The Three Tales,” Chris Anderson’s blog, July 18, 2008 (http://www.longtail.com/the_long_tail/2008/07/kevin-kelly-the.html, accessed March 17, 2011).
CARR, Nicholas, The Shallows: What the Internet Is Doing to Our Brains, op. cit.
LANIER, Jaron, You Are Not A Gadget: A Manifesto, op. cit., p. 104.
Ibid., p. 97.
Quoted by Lanier, ibid., p. 98.
SISARIO, Ben, “Weak Ticket Sales Contribute to Large Loss for Live Nation,” The New York Times, February 28, 2011 (http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/01/business/media/01live.html, accessed August 6, 2013).
LANIER, Jaron, You Are Not A Gadget: A Manifesto, op. cit., p. 89.
Ibid., p. 101.
Ibid., p. 105-107.
Ibid., p. 108-116.
VIRNO, Paulo, “Post-Fordist Semblance.”
ROTHBARD, Nancy, “Put on a Happy Face. Seriously,” The Wall Street Journal, October 24, 2011 (http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970203388804576612943738516996.html, accessed August 6, 2013).
VIRNO, Paulo, “Post-Fordist Semblance,” p. 43.
LAZZARATO, Maurizio, “Immaterial Labor.”
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