Bibliographie
Becker Judith, Deep Listeners: Music, Emotion, and Trancing, Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 2004.
Berwick Andrew, “2083 - A European Declaration of Independence”, London, 2011.
Beydoun Khaled A, “Lone Wolf Terrorism: Types, Stripes, and Double Standards”, Northwestern University Law Review, vol. 112, no. 5, 2018, 2018, p. 32.
Bjorøy Karl-Magnus and Hawkins Stan, “‘When light turns into darkness’: Inscriptions of music and terror in Oslo 22 July 201”, Knudsen Jan Sverre, Skånland Marie Strand and Trondalen Gro (eds.), Musikk etter 22. juli [Music after 22 Juli], Oslo, Norwegian Academy of Music, 2014, pp. 139-161.
Bowden Mark, The Kabul-ki Dance, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2002/11/the-kabul-ki-dance/302610, accessed on November 8, 2018.
Bull Michael, Sounding Out the City: Personal Stereos and the Management of Everyday Life, Oxford, Berg, 2000.
Clayton Martin, “Introduction: Towards a Theory of Musical Meaning (In India and Elsewhere)”, British Journal of Ethnomusicology, vol. 10, no. 1, 2001, pp. 1-17.
Coker Christopher, The Future of War. The Re-Enchantment of War in the Twenty-First Century, Malden,Oxford,Victoria, Blackwell, 2004.
Cusick Suzanne G. and Joseph Branden W., “Across an Invisible Line: A Conversation about Music and Torture”, Grey room, no. 42, 2011, pp. 6–21.
Daughtry J. Martin, Listening to War. Sound, Music, Trauma, and Survival in Wartime Iraq, Oxford; New York, Oxford University Press, 2015.
DeNora Tia, Music Asylums: Wellbeing Through Music in Everyday Life, Farnham, Surrey; Burlington, VT, Ashgate, 2013.
DeNora Tia, Music in Everyday Life, Cambridge; New York, Cambridge University Press, 2003.
Dokic Jérôme, Hatten Robert S, Ingold Tim, Kreutzer Michel and Tolbert Elizabeth, “Comments on ‘Postures of listening’ by Victor A. Stoichita and Bernd Brabec de Mori”, Terrain. Anthropologie & sciences humaines, 2018, http://journals.openedition.org/terrain/17547.
Doyle Peter, Echo and Reverb: Fabricating Space in Popular Music, 1900-1960, 1900-1960, Middletown, Wesleyan University Press, 2005.
Friedson Steven M., “The Music Box: Songs of Futility in a Time of Torture”, Ethnomusicology, vol. 63, no. 2, 2019, pp. 222-246.
Gell Alfred, Art and Agency. An Anthropological Theory, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1998.
Gibson James J., The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception, London, Taylor & Francis, 1986.
Gilman Lisa, “Grounding the Troops: Music, Place, and Memory in the Iraq War”, Volume ! La revue des musiques populaires, vol. 10, no. 1, 2013, pp. 172-190.
Gilman Lisa, “An American Soldier’s iPod: Layers of Identity and Situated Listening in Iraq”, Music and Politics, vol. IV, no. 2, 2010, p. 7, https://dx.doi.org/10.3998/mp.9460447.0004.201.
Grant Morag Josephine, “Music during Battle: Representation and Reality”, Jardin Étienne (ed.), Music and War in Europe from the French Revolution to WWI, Turnhout, Brepols, 2016, pp. 29-44.
Grant Morag Josephine, “Bagpipes at the Front: Pipers and Piping during Combat in the Great War”, Schramm Michael (ed.), Militärmusik und Erster Weltkrieg, Bonn, Militärmusikzentrum der Bundeswehr, 2015, pp. 35-67.
Krueger Joel, “Musicing, Materiality, and the Emotional Niche”, Action, Criticism, and Theory for Music Education, vol. 14, no. 3, 2015, pp. 43-62.
Lakoff George and Johnson Mark, Metaphors We Live By, Chicago and London, University of Chicago Press, 1980.
Leonard Cecilia H., Annas George D., Knoll James L. and Tørrissen Terje, “The Case of Anders Behring Breivik - Language of a Lone Terrorist”, Behavioral Sciences & the Law, vol. 32, no. 3, 2014, pp. 408-422.
Olds Ian and Scott Garett, Occupation: Dreamland, Rumur Releasing, 2005.
Pidd Helen, “Anders Behring Breivik cries during own propaganda film”, The Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/apr/16/anders-behring-breivik-cries-own-propaganda-film, 04/16/2012.
Pieslak Jonathan R., Sound Targets: American Soldiers and Music in the Iraq War, Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 2009.
Ranstorp Magnus, “‘Lone Wolf Terrorism’. The Case of Anders Breivik”, Sicherheit & Frieden, vol. 31, no. 2, 2013, pp. 87-92.
Stoichita Victor A., “Musicopathies. La musique est-elle bonne pour la santé ?”, Terrain. Anthropologie & sciences humaines, no. 68, 2017, pp. 4-25.
Stoichita Victor A. and Brabec de Mori Bernd, “Postures of listening. An ontology of sonic percepts from an anthropological perspective”, Terrain. Anthropologie & sciences humaines, 2017, http://journals.openedition.org/terrain/16418.
Stoichita Victor A. and Brabec de Mori Bernd, “Response to comments on ‘Postures of listening’”, Terrain. Anthropologie & sciences humaines, 2018, http://journals.openedition.org/terrain/17579.
Stroud Joe, “The Importance of Music to Anders Behring Breivik”, Contemporary Voices: St Andrews Journal of International Relations, vol. 4, no. 1, 2013, https://doi.org/10.15664/jtr.620.
Sumera Matthew, “The Soundtrack to War”, Whitehead Neil L. and Finnström Sverker (eds.), Virtual War and Magical Death: Technologies and Imaginaries for Terror and Killing, Durham (NC), Duke University Press, 2013, pp. 214-233.
Teitelbaum Benjamin, “‘The Path of Dreams’: Breivik, Music, and Neo-Nazi Skinheadism”, Knudsen Jan Sverre, Skånland Marie Strand and Trondalen Gro (eds.), Musikk etter 22. juli [Music after 22 Juli], Oslo, Norwegian Academy of Music, 2014, pp. 119-138.
Volcler Juliette, Le son comme arme. Les usages policiers et militaires du son, Paris, La Découverte, 2011.
Walser Robert, “Rhythm, Rhyme, and Rhetoric in the Music of Public Enemy”, Ethnomusicology, vol. 39, no. 2, 1995, pp. 193-217.
Walser Robert, Running with the Devil. Power, Gender, and Madness in Heavy Metal Music, Middletown, Wesleyan University Press, 1993.
Whitehead Neil L. and Finnström Sverker, Virtual War and Magical Death: Technologies and Imaginaries for Terror and Killing, Durham (NC), Duke University Press, 2013.
Whiteley Sheila, “Progressive Rock and Psychedelic Coding in the Work of Jimi Hendrix”, Popular Music, vol. 9, no. 1, 1990, p. 37.
Wilson Scott, “Jonathan Pieslak, Sound Targets: American Soldiers and Music in the Iraq War”, Volume ! La revue des musiques populaires, vol. 9, no. 2, 2012, pp. 243–245.
Wilson Scott, Great Satan's Rage: American Negativity and Rap/metal in the Age of Supercapitalism, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2015
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Notes
Stoichita Victor A. and Brabec de Mori Bernd, “Postures of listening. An ontology of sonic percepts from an anthropological perspective”, Terrain. Anthropologie & sciences humaines, 2017, http://journals.openedition.org/terrain/16418.
DeNora Tia, Music in Everyday Life, Cambridge; New York, Cambridge University Press, 2003, p. 44.
“Musicing, Materiality, and the Emotional Niche”, Action, Criticism, and Theory for Music Education, vol. 14, no. 3, 2015, pp. 43-62.
Clayton Martin, “Introduction: Towards a Theory of Musical Meaning (In India and Elsewhere)”, British Journal of Ethnomusicology, vol. 10, no. 1, 2001, p. 4.
DeNora’s own argument frequently resorts to shortcuts like “music’s power” and syntactic structures in which music is an autonomous agent. For example, if indeed “music may take actors unaware” (DeNora, Music in Everyday Life, p. 162), then their agency in this process is at best disputable.
Gibson James J., The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception, London, Taylor & Francis, 1986, p. 127, emphasis in the original.
Ibid., p. 129.
Ibid., p. 134.
DeNora, Music in Everyday Life, p. 40.
I follow Gilman in using “the term ‘soldier’ generically to refer to those in the military in any branch, understanding that ‘the soldiers’ officially refers only to those serving in the U.S. Army”, Gilman Lisa, “Grounding the Troops: Music, Place, and Memory in the Iraq War”, Volume ! La revue des musiques populaires, vol. 10, no. 1, 2013, p. 174.
Pieslak Jonathan R., Sound Targets: American Soldiers and Music in the Iraq War, Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 2009, p. 31sqq; Daughtry J. Martin, Listening to War. Sound, Music, Trauma, and Survival in Wartime Iraq, Oxford; New York, Oxford University Press, 2015, p. 232.
Stoichita Victor A., “Musicopathies. La musique est-elle bonne pour la santé ?”, Terrain. Anthropologie & sciences humaines, no. 68, 2017, pp. 4-25.
Gilman Lisa, “An American Soldier’s iPod: Layers of Identity and Situated Listening in Iraq”, Music and Politics, vol. IV, no. 2, 2010, p. 7, https://dx.doi.org/10.3998/mp.9460447.0004.201.
Wilson Scott, “Jonathan Pieslak, Sound Targets: American Soldiers and Music in the Iraq War,” Volume ! La revue des musiques populaires, vol. 9, no. 2, 2012, pp. 243–245.
Whitehead Neil L. and Finnström Sverker, Virtual War and Magical Death: Technologies and Imaginaries for Terror and Killing, Durham (NC), Duke University Press, 2013.
Anders Behring Breivik changed his name to Fjotolf Hansen in 2017. He signed his compendium as Andrew Berwick. Here, I use Breivik throughout to refer to the man, and his pen name to cite his compendium in accordance with bibliographical conventions.
Beydoun Khaled A, “Lone Wolf Terrorism: Types, Stripes, and Double Standards”, Northwestern University Law Review, vol. 112, no. 5, 2018, p. 1218.
Berwick Andrew, “2083 - A European Declaration of Independence”, London, 2011, p. 845.
Leonard Cecilia H., Annas George D., Knoll James L. and Tørrissen Terje, “The Case of Anders Behring Breivik - Language of a Lone Terrorist”, Behavioral Sciences & the Law, vol. 32, no. 3, 2014, pp. 408-422.
Ibid., p. 416.
Ibid., p. 417.
Ranstorp Magnus, “‘Lone Wolf Terrorism’. The Case of Anders Breivik”, Sicherheit & Frieden, vol. 31, no. 2, 2013, p. 89.
Ibid., p. 91.
Ibid., p. 89.
Breivik mentions three tracks which for him “surpass almost anything [he’s] heard before” (Berwick, “2083 - A European Declaration of Independence”, p. 849) : The Dreaming - Ere the World Crumbles / Nighttime journey through the Eiglophian mountains (Ascending Cimmeria) / The Dreaming Anew - Memories of Cimmeria.
This version can easily be found on YouTube. It is more difficult to find it in the film, however Breivik writes that it was “performed during the most intense fighting of one of the central battles” (Ibid). According to Stroud (Stroud Joe, “The Importance of Music to Anders Behring Breivik”, Contemporary Voices: St Andrews Journal of International Relations, vol. 4, no. 1, 2013, p. 10, https://doi.org/10.15664/jtr.620), it was used only in the trailer of Lord of the Rings. However, fans of the movie have used it extensively to soundtrack their home-made resamples of their favourite scenes of the film. Such resamples abound on YouTube.com. Only there can the soundtrack version be heard in full length. This soundtracking of battle scenes closely resembles the “war videos” produced by American soldiers.
Stroud, “The Importance of Music to Anders Behring Breivik”.
Ibid., p. 11.
“‘The Path of Dreams’: Breivik, Music, and Neo-Nazi Skinheadism”, Knudsen Jan Sverre, Skånland Marie Strand and Trondalen Gro (eds.), Musikk etter 22. juli [Music after 22 Juli], Oslo, Norwegian Academy of Music, 2014, pp. 119-138.
Ibid., p. 136.
A thorough analysis of these lyrics would be beyond the scope of this article. It should be mentioned however that some songs cited by Breivik deviate from the general enunciative strategy described here. For instance, in Hypocrite, the second person is prominent and the tone accusative: “You complain about the politicians but still you vote them in / You’ve lost your soul, you coward; to sell your pride is a sin.” The listener could here identify with the second person in a kind of self-bashing or, more probably, he or she will join the utterer and accuse others of hypocrisy. My general point is that the lyrics to which Breivik seems receptive easily allow the listener to move into the first-person agentive position.
For a detailed musicological analysis of “The dreaming anew”, see Bjorøy Karl-Magnus and Hawkins Stan, “‘When light turns into darkness’: Inscriptions of music and terror in Oslo 22 July 201,” Knudsen Jan Sverre, Skånland Marie Strand and Trondalen Gro (eds.), Musikk etter 22. juli [Music after 22 Juli], Oslo, Norwegian Academy of Music, 2014, pp. 139–161, p. 155.
Berwick, “2083 - A European Declaration of Independence”, p. 849.
Bjorøy Karl-Magnus and Hawkins Stan, “‘When light turns into darkness’: Inscriptions of music and terror in Oslo 22 July 201”, Knudsen Jan Sverre, Skånland Marie Strand and Trondalen Gro (eds.), Musikk etter 22. juli [Music after 22 Juli], p. 141.
Pieslak, Sound targets, p. 26.
Ibid., p. 47; Walser Robert, Running with the Devil. Power, Gender, and Madness in Heavy Metal Music, Middletown, Wesleyan University Press, 1993, p. 11.
Berwick, “2083 - A European Declaration of Independence”, p. 249.
See Bull Michael, Sounding Out the City: Personal Stereos and the Management of Everyday Life, Oxford, Berg, 2000, p. 85sqq.
Stoichita, “Musicopathies. La musique est-elle bonne pour la santé ?”.
On the uses of reverb as an acoustic index of space in American popular musics, see Doyle, Echo and Reverb: Fabricating Space in Popular Music, 1900-1960, Middletown, Wesleyan University Press, 2005.
Stroud, “The Importance of Music to Anders Behring Breivik”, p. 9; Bjorøy and Hawkins, “‘When light turns into darkness’: Inscriptions of music and terror in Oslo 22 July 201”, p. 155.
Pidd Helen, “Anders Behring Breivik cries during own propaganda film”, The Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/apr/16/anders-behring-breivik-cries-own-propaganda-film, 04/16/2012.
Ranstorp, “‘Lone Wolf Terrorism’. The Case of Anders Breivik”, p. 90.
Breivik did kill an unarmed policeman upon his arrival on the island of Utøya. He later surrendered without resistance to the special forces deployed to intercept him.
This complaint was reported in various newspapers. See for instance Saul Heather, “Anders Breivik: Mass murderer demands better video games and threatens hunger strike over jail ‘hell,’” The Independent, 02/15/2014. For more context on Breivik’s relation with the media after his incarceration, see Deshayes, La lettre de l’assassin, https://making-of.afp.com/la-lettre-de-lassassin, consulted on 8 July 2019.
Berwick, “2083 - A European Declaration of Independence”, pp. 631, 1390.
Daughtry J. Martin, Listening to War; Pieslak, Sound targets; Gilman, “An American Soldier’s iPod”; Gilman, “Grounding the Troops”; Volcler Juliette, Le son comme arme. Les usages policiers et militaires du son, Paris, La Découverte, 2011.
Pieslak, Sound targets, p. 42sqq.
Sumera Matthew, “The Soundtrack to War”, Whitehead Neil L. and Finnström Sverker (eds.), Virtual War and Magical Death: Technologies and Imaginaries for Terror and Killing, Durham (NC), Duke University Press, 2013, pp. 214-233.
Ibid.; Pieslak, Sound targets, p. 27 sqq.
Gilman, “An American Soldier’s iPod”, p. 6.
“The Soundtrack to War”, p. 234.
Eric, quoted by Gilman, “An American Soldier’s iPod”, p. 9.
Daughtry, Listening to War, pp. 220-225.
Gilman, “An American Soldier’s iPod”, p. 5.
Daughtry, Listening to War, p. 20.
Pieslak, Sound targets, p. 150.
Ibid., p. 152.
Whiteley Sheila, “Progressive Rock and Psychedelic Coding in the Work of Jimi Hendrix”, Popular Music, vol. 9, no. 1, 1990, p. 86 quoted in Pieslak 2009 p. 169.
DeNora Tia, Music Asylums: Wellbeing Through Music in Everyday Life, Farnham, Surrey; Burlington, VT, Ashgate, 2013, p. 138.
Ibid., p. 113.
Wilson Scott, Great Satan's Rage: American Negativity and Rap/metal in the Age of Supercapitalism, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2015.
For a precise historical example see Grant Morag Josephine, “Bagpipes at the Front: Pipers and Piping during Combat in the Great War”, Schramm Michael (ed.), Militärmusik und Erster Weltkrieg, Bonn, Militärmusikzentrum der Bundeswehr, 2015, pp. 35-67. The Scottish Highland regiments of the British Army used bagpipe music as an incentive during the battle until after World War I. Grant’s analysis of historical sources shows that the role of the piper’s music on the battlefield was not to promote aggression or the willingness to kill. Instead, “the piper provided reassurance and a focal point in an essentially inhumane and chaotic environment”. To that effect, he would play popular songs, dance tunes and regimental marches. These were drawn “largely from the wider repertoire of Scottish songs and tunes, supplemented with newer tunes written specifically for the pipes and often commemorating certain campaigns, events or persons.” In effect, piper’s music at war stood for ideas of homeland and social bonding, rather than for the battle as a violent encounter. Other examples of pipers’ military repertoire and its reception are analyzed in Grant Morag Josephine, “Music during Battle: Representation and Reality”, Jardin Étienne (ed.), Music and War in Europe from the French Revolution to WWI, Turnhout, Brepols, 2016, pp. 29-44.
Gilman, “Grounding the Troops,” pp. 4-7.
Gilman, “Grounding the Troops”, p. 9.
Sergeant 1st Class Grisham, quoted by Pieslak, Sound targets, p. 69.
A “secular” kind of trancing according to Becker Judith, Deep Listeners: Music, Emotion, and Trancing, Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 2004, p. 2.
Pieslak, Sound targets, p. 165.
For instance in Sumera, “The Soundtrack to War,” p. 218: “Trancing is exactly what these warriors engage in during practices of collective listening prior to going out on patrol”.
See for instance the Balinese Rangda/Barong ritual in Becker, Deep Listeners. Music, Emotion and Trancing, p. 84, to which Pieslak also refers.
This was also the official regulation, see Daughtry, Listening to War, p. 234.
Sgt N. Saunders, quoted by Pieslak, Sound targets, p. 56.
Ibid., pp. 31-44.
Daughtry, Listening to War, p. 232.
The same Grisham, quoted by Pieslak, Sound targets, p. 55.
DeNora, Music in Everyday Life, p. 27.
Lakoff George and Johnson Mark, Metaphors We Live By, Chicago and London, University of Chicago Press, 1980, p. 5.
I follow Lakoff and Johnson’s typographical convention in capitalizing references to concepts and metaphors (as opposed to the actual things to which they refer in the world).
Lakoff and Johnson, Metaphors We Live By, p. 5.
There is, in this respect, a difference between the war against the regular Iraqi army (March to May 2003) and the rest of the American intervention in Iraq and Afghanistan.
Wilson, “Jonathan Pieslak, Sound Targets”.
Bowden Mark, The Kabul-ki Dance, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2002/11/the-kabul-ki-dance/302610/, accessed on November 8, 2018.
One soldier in a tank, in Gittoes George, Soundtrack to War, ABC Video, 2005 at 8:23.
Pfc Thomas Turner, in Olds Ian and Scott Garett, Occupation: Dreamland, Rumur Releasing, 2005 at 25:02.
1st Lieutnant Matt Bacik, Ibid. at 26:46.
The instrumental track is available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DePcSUopqSw
Walser Robert, “Rhythm, Rhyme, and Rhetoric in the Music of Public Enemy”, Ethnomusicology, vol. 39, no. 2, 1995, pp. 193-217.
Walser, Running with the Devil. Power, Gender, and Madness in Heavy Metal Music.
Cusick Suzanne G. and Joseph Branden W., “Across an Invisible Line: A Conversation about Music and Torture”, Grey room, no. 42, 2011, p. 11.
There were of course important differences too. Perhaps the most significant, for a discussion of music’s effects, is that, by all detainee accounts, music stopped sounding like music during sessions of loud and prolonged exposure to the same repeated track. It became just “banging”, “hammering” on the head, and the unfortunate listeners lost any other sense of rhythm, harmony or melodic structure. In a recent investigation on the divergence between musical torture and musical possession (both of which would seem to dismantle an individual’s normal self), Friedson pointed to another important difference related to the management of time. “The temporality of musical experience, its durée, has the uncanny ability, in both no-touch torture and shrine rituals, to bite into the very realm of existence not in order to dissolve it but in order to become it” (Friedson Steven M., “The Music Box: Songs of Futility in a Time of Torture,” Ethnomusicology, vol. 63, no. 2, 2019, pp. 222–246, p. 236). Friedson goes on to say that in musical torture, entrainment is totally asymmetrical, imposed from above and unpredictable in both its occurrence and its duration. Its psychological purpose is “learned helplessness”. At shrine rituals on the contrary, music’s stable and prolonged repetition provides a predictable structure onto which the listener can latch in order to enter a “musical plane of multiplicity”.
Whitehead and Finnström, Virtual war and magical death, p. 8.
Ibid., p. 1.
DeNora, Music Asylums, p. 63.
Coker Christopher, The Future of War. The Re-Enchantment of War in the Twenty-First Century, Malden; Oxford; Victoria, Blackwell, 2004, p. 130.
One might think for instance of “aerobic” music to which Western listeners also lend many energizing properties, see DeNora, Music in Everyday Life, p. 89sqq.
According to Gilman, the social position of the (often underprivileged) artists could have mattered to some soldiers who considered themselves as also subaltern and were “engaging similar negotiations of power and powerlessness” (Gilman, “An American Soldier’s iPod”, p. 7). However, the same author elsewhere indicates that “many soldiers described selecting music because they considered the artists and genres to be far removed from their current realities” (Gilman, “Grounding the Troops,” p. 10). The types of music to which each of these comments refers is unclear.
Stoichita and Brabec de Mori, “Postures of listening. An ontology of sonic percepts from an anthropological perspective”. For a detailed discussion see Dokic Jérôme, Hatten Robert S, Ingold Tim, Kreutzer Michel and Tolbert Elizabeth, “Comments on ‘Postures of listening’ by Victor A. Stoichita and Bernd Brabec de Mori”, Terrain. Anthropologie & sciences humaines, 2018, http://journals.openedition.org/terrain/17547 and Stoichita Victor A. and Brabec de Mori Bernd, “Response to comments on ‘Postures of listening’”, Terrain. Anthropologie & sciences humaines, 2018, http://journals.openedition.org/terrain/17579.
Gell Alfred, Art and Agency. An Anthropological Theory, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1998, p. 17.
Ibid., p. 15. Abduction is a kind of reasoning whereby causes are inferred from observing their (alleged) consequences. It is, strictly speaking, a syllogism because a consequence could have several different causes. Its validity therefore remains hypothetical, but it is nevertheless commonly used and usually efficient in orienting one’s actions in practice. Gell made the point that whenever people consider that a being acts autonomously, “by itself”, they abduct its agency from observed disturbances in its vicinity.
Gell, Art and Agency, p. 16.
DeNora, Music Asylums, p. 141. DeNora herself wants “a revised notion of music as magic, in particular what might be termed a 'magic realist' theory of how music helps, a focus on how music can convert us from one state of being or mode of consciousness to another, in ways that are produced through concrete and practical actions and on craft, a focus expressly devoted to what people do with and attribute to music in specific settings” (Ibid). What remains to be addressed in this program is what happens when people find in music not just affordances, but also autonomous causation and agency.
Stoichita and Brabec de Mori, “Postures of listening. An ontology of sonic percepts from an anthropological perspective”.
Gell, Art and Agency, p. 17.
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