Creativity in the global Hong Kong diaspora - A discussion
Résumé
Over the past ten years a growing number of writers and artists from Hong Kong have established themselves elsewhere in the global Hong Kong diaspora. As a result of dwindling freedoms in the former British colony, this tendency can only intensify. In the autumn of 2023, a discussion at the University of St Andrews, led by Gregory Lee, addressed the evolution and future of creativity in the evolving Hong Kong Chinese diaspora.
Texte intégral
1Gregory Lee: Are we now looking at a new exile community of Hong Kong writers or at an evolution of an existing diaspora?
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Chris Song: To clarify the terms “exile” and “diaspora,” which are often employed in literary and cultural discourses, I would articulate “exile” as a state of enforced or self-imposed banishment from one’s native land, typically for political reasons. It connotes a lack of choice and is often characterized by an inability to return. “Diaspora,” on the other hand, encompasses a broader phenomenon of people living away from their homeland, which can be voluntary or involuntary, but not necessarily due to political coercion or proscription. In this context, “diaspora” may indeed be viewed as a more expansive concept, encapsulating “exile” as a subset, while not every diasporic situation entails the restrictions of exile. Regarding the recent developments in Hong Kong, the enactment of the National Security Law has indeed given rise to instances where individuals have departed due to political concerns. Those who are prevented from returning or who elect to remain abroad due to perceived risks related to their political activities during periods of unrest exemplify a convergence of “diaspora” and “exile.” This conflation is particularly resonant in contemporary discussions about Hong Kong, illustrating how the two conditions can intersect and how personal choices are influenced by the political climate.
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Certainly, the nuances of individual experiences within the broader context of migration are critical. In my case, the departure from Hong Kong was not driven by political exigencies but by professional aspirations. Completing my Ph.D. in Hong Kong at the end of 2018, I subsequently faced the challenges of the social unrest and the COVID-19 pandemic. I did not secure a single interview for a tenure-track position in Hong Kong. However, an opportunity arose at the University of Toronto, leading to my relocation. Identifying as an exile does not resonate with my experience. Instead, I see myself as a member of the Hong Kong diaspora in Canada, representing a different facet. For individuals in situations akin to mine, the concepts of diaspora and exile remain distinct and unmerged, highlighting the personal and non-political nature of their migration.
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Indeed, the subject of a Hong Kong-specific diaspora presents a compelling field of study. Traditionally, the discourse on diaspora has been tied to southbound writers from Mainland China, with earlier research designating Hong Kong as a diasporic endpoint relative to the writers’ origins. However, the dynamics have shifted, and now there is an emergent narrative where Hong Kong itself is the place of origin for a global diaspora, a phenomenon that has been taking shape over the past few decades. This diaspora has rooted itself in diverse regions, including Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, the United States and even Africa. While the term “diaspora” may not be uniformly applied in academic articles across disciplines that study the Hong Kong diaspora, the essence remains consistent. Furthermore, recent studies have delved into the Hong Kong diaspora’s ties to the 2019-2020 Anti-Extradition Law Amendment Bill (Anti-ELAB) movement, underscoring the profound political and emotional bonds that these diasporic communities maintain with their homeland. These bonds persist despite geographical dispersal to various parts of the world, such as the Netherlands and Sweden, revealing a collective consciousness and a shared response to the significant upheavals experienced in Hong Kong.
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Certainly, the contribution of diasporic writers to Hong Kong literature is both significant and historically rooted. As early as the 1970s, we can observe figures such as the painter and writer Chung-Hing (Lü Qishi 綠騎士, 1947–) making literary contributions from France that resonated with their homeland. Their work set a precedent for authors who emigrated two decades later, such as the celebrated Isabel Nee Yeh-su or Yi Shu 亦舒 (1946–), who relocated to Vancouver in the 1990s. Despite the geographical shift, Yi Shu’s literary output remained as robust as during her time in Hong Kong. In a similar vein, Lee Ka-sing 李家昇 (1954–), a photographer and poet, has created a trilogy of visual poetry anthologies that reflect upon the Hong Kong experience from his new vantage point in Toronto. His work exemplifies how the diasporic narrative continues to evolve through different mediums.
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The period around 1997, when the UK transferred sovereignty over Hong Kong to the People's Republic of China, marked a significant moment in the literature of the Hong Kong diaspora, capturing the imaginations and anxieties of a community facing profound change. Among the works that emerged, Wong Bik-wan’s 黃碧雲 (1961–) “Losing the City” 失城 stands out as a powerful political allegory. In her narrative, a middle-class Hong Kong family’s relocation across Calgary, Toronto, and San Francisco culminates in a tragic return to Hong Kong, with a harrowing denouement in which the patriarch brutally kills all his family members while Western classical music plays in the background. Conversely, P.K. Leung’s “Private Dining in Vancouver” 溫哥華的私房菜 offers a less macabre but no less poignant portrayal of the complexities faced by transnational families shortly after Hong Kong’s handover to China.
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Moreover, the younger generation in recent years, represented by Leung Lee-chi 梁莉姿 (1995–), who moved to Taiwan, has also garnered recognition. Her award-winning fiction, which centers on pivotal events such as the Umbrella and Anti-ELAB movements, underscores how the diaspora remains inextricably linked to and reflective of the socio-political currents of Hong Kong. These narratives are not isolated. They belong to a rich tapestry of works by numerous writers who have explored the theme of the Hong Kong diaspora, both past and present. These writers, regardless of their diasporic statuses and locations, contribute to a vibrant and ever-expanding corpus of Hong Kong literature that transcends borders.
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Gregory Lee: In the post-1949 period, some writers who fled the mainland saw the British colony of Hong Kong as a mere springboard to elsewhere; others who stayed tried to convince themselves they were but lifelong exiles, but even they grew into a sense of Hongkongness. To what degree is it true to say all Hong Kong writing over the past 70 years has always been inherently diasporic or exilic?
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Chris Song: Predating the founding of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, there was a period of Chinese writers’ migration southwards to Hong Kong starting from the late 1930s, for example, Xiao Hong 蕭紅 (1911–1942), Dai Wangshu 戴望舒 (1905–1950), along with a cohort of many more leftist writers; it precipitated a profound and enduring impact on the cultural fabric of Hong Kong in the twentieth century. This early movement was succeeded by a more widely recognized migration around the inception of the PRC in 1949. These writers, who migrated to Hong Kong during this period, are often referred to as southbound writers 南來作家 and became emblematic of the diasporic and exilic narrative in Hong Kong literature. However, the trajectories of these south-bound writers varied considerably. Figures such as Ronald P. Mar 馬朗 (1930?–) and Eileen Chang 張愛玲 (1920–1995) eventually left Hong Kong, while others like Liu Yichang 劉以鬯 (1918–2018) assimilated and embraced a sense of Hongkongness, though a phenomenon not universally observed as exemplified by Manchurian writer Li Huiying 李輝英 (1911–1991). The claim that all literary work from Hong Kong over the last seventy years is inherently diasporic or exilic does not account for the nuanced and diverse experiences of these writers, nor does it accurately reflect the complex literary landscape of Hong Kong.
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In considering the diversity of southbound writers, we encounter a spectrum of engagements with Hong Kong as a subject of literary exploration. Contrasting with Liu Yichang, who actively incorporated Hong Kong into his narratives, there exists a number of writers who, despite their residing in Hong Kong, rarely reflected the city in their work. This raises intriguing questions about the extent to which their literature can be categorized as Hong Kong writing, particularly when considering pro-PRC writers whose works might not align with diasporic literature, given their lack of self-identification with any diaspora. My answer thus far has revolved around those who were already established literary figures prior to their arrival in Hong Kong.
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However, it is imperative to acknowledge individuals who gained prominence post-migration, such as Xi Xi 西西 (1937–2022) and P.K. Leung 梁秉鈞 (a.k.a. 也斯 Ye Si; 1949–2013), both of whom migrated to Hong Kong during their youth. Their works, which are not easily classified as diasporic or exilic, present a compelling argument against oversimplified categorizations. Furthermore, there were writers native to Hong Kong, born before 1949, such as Lü Lun 侶倫 (1911–1988), Quanan 崑南 (1935–) and Shu Hong-sing 舒巷城 (1921–1999), who have contributed significantly to the city’s literary heritage over the past seven decades. The post-1997 era introduces even more complexity, with authors like Liu Wai-tong 廖偉棠 (1975–), whose works are predominantly viewed as Hong Kong literature, largely devoid of diasporic overtones. Conversely, we have Bei Dao 北島 (1949–), whose poems and essays written in Hong Kong, while reflecting diasporic experiences, do not fit conveniently into the exilic genre, as in this period he was no longer barred from going to Mainland China. This intricate mosaic of writers underscores the challenge of defining Hong Kong literature within rigid diasporic or exilic frameworks.
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In the light of such complexity, I would caution against broad generalizations about Hong Kong literature as inherently diasporic or exilic. The definitions of “Hong Kong writing,” “diasporic,” and “exilic” are nuanced and multifaceted, which reflects the intricate nature of Hong Kong's literary history and identity.
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Gregory Lee: Some of you have lived and been writing in Scotland for some time. A number of BN(O) visa migrants have told me they made an active choice of Scotland over the rest of the UK as a place to settle. But, for writers what feeds the decision to be or remain in Scotland, a sense of belonging, or mere expediency, and do you feel there is a specificity to writing in Scotland?
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Anna Cheung: Having lived in Scotland most of my life, there is definitely a Scottish influence in my writing, for example Scottish folklore became an invaluable resource to tap into due to the Gothic nature of some of my poems, and the cityscapes of Glasgow also featured in my collection, Where Decay Sleeps. I was interested in portraying the paranormal with the seedier underbelly of the Scottish city; the hedonistic nightclubs, the dark alleyways and underground cavities – a contrast to the tourist’s version of an idyllic Scotland.
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However, my writing has also been influenced by stories my family told me as a child involving Hong Kong urban legends and ghost stories, so I would say that Scotland forms one of the many layers to my writing - it’s important for me to remain multi-faceted and to be able to explore broader perspectives and narratives as a writer.
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Gregory Lee: On the notion of Hong Kong-ness, some writers have chosen to write so far about Hong Kong, as memory, traces and nostalgia. Some have chosen a different path. How much do editors/publishers make you feel your writing "needs" to have a Hong Kong or "Chinese" focus or angle? What is the reaction when that focus is absent?
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Anna Cheung: I’ve been lucky in the respect that I’ve never felt pressure from my publisher for my writing to have a “Chinese’ focus. However, when submitting poetry to magazines for instance, I tend to avoid submitting to issues dedicated to BESEA (British East and South-East Asian) writers as I know that there would be expectations on the writing to explore themes such as cultural identity and diaspora. Perhaps I’ve chosen not to write about Hong Kong because being a second-generation migrant, diaspora hasn’t affected me in the same way as say, my parents or my siblings, who were all born and raised in Hong Kong and came to UK later in life. So, it almost feels as if I have less of a personal story to tell compared to first-generation Hong Kong writers. Having said that, I’ve weaved Chinese folklore, literature and cultural traditions into my poems so perhaps this was another way to embrace my Chinese heritage instead of writing directly from memory and nostalgia.
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Sean Wai Keung: I used to rebel against the idea of writing about my identity and/or 'Hong Kong' despite many people, both peers and publishers and editors, suggesting that I do so, partly due to a fear of not being Chinese or HongKonger 'enough' and partly just because I didn't want to. In the end a combination of conversations with different diaspora poets convinced me that there could potentially be areas to explore in my writing if I was to embrace identity-writing instead, but to do so in my own way and following my own rules and experiences. This is where my pamphlet you are mistaken came from and its success helped to connect me with other people around the world who felt the same as me or shared similar experiences. Because of that, now I think of those people as my audience instead, rather than editors or publishers or universities. As a freelancer though it is still very noticeable how many commissions I get offered around Lunar New Year, or to specifically work with 'Chinese' communities, etc. and often I feel like I have to balance financial concerns with my own personal discomfort at the idea of being tokenised. So there is still always tension.
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Gregory Lee: On the question of language do you envisage writing in Chinese 中文 (either 書面語 or 粵語) in the future? Do you think there will ever be any space for Hong Kong/Hong Kong diasporic poetry not written in English? Might you produce versions of your poems in Cantonese in future?
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Anna Cheung: I’ve become less fluent in spoken and written Cantonese over the years due to lack of use. I remember being fluent in Chinese as a child but as English education took over, I started processing thoughts differently when English became the dominant language. Sadly, even if I were to re-learn Chinese all over again, it will remain a second language now instead of my first.
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Gregory Lee: Does the fact of instant, worldwide electronic communication make a global, rather than country-specific, community of Hong Kong/Hong Kong diasporic writing a greater likelihood than in the past?
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Sean Wai Keung: I believe so, and I have been lucky enough to tap into more of my Hong Kong identity through online connections, communications and events over the last few years. At the same time the types of writing that have potential to come from those communities will still vary globally I believe in line with the different migratory 'waves' from Hong Kong and their different individual experiences.
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Gregory Lee: Despite the fact that over the past century Cantonese speakers – and post-war, Hong Kong migrants – have been dominant in the UK, the white British imaginary continues to see the 'Chinese-looking' community as indiscriminately and monolithically 'Chinese'. More recently the notion of BESEA (British East and South-East Asian) has been promoted as a broader super-ethnic category, mainly as a response to anti-Chinese hate crimes. How do you feel about that? And do white Britons need to be reminded of the specificity of Hong Kong migrants? Should Hong Kong or Cantonese creative writers be seen as a discrete category?
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Sean Wai Keung: I believe this depends on the situation, and that there is a place for both super-ethnic categories and for much more specific categories. In an academic setting or within a more cosmopolitan city landscape, for instance, it might make more sense to focus on Hong Kong identity or status. However in more rural or 'white' locations, and for the purposes of solidarity, safety and activism, BESEA can be a powerful advocacy tool, in the same way that BIPOC [black, indigenous, (and) people of color]/Global Majority can be useful in other places and times. Even within the 'Hong Kong' identity label there is room for nuance, I believe. For instance the experiences and needs of non-Chinese, non-White Hong Kongers is often forgotten within discussions of Hongkongness.
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Référence électronique
Chris Song, Anna Cheung et Sean Wai Keung, « Creativity in the global Hong Kong diaspora - A discussion », Transtext(e)s Transcultures 跨文本跨文化 [En ligne], 18 | 2023, mis en ligne le 30 décembre 2023, consulté le 09 juillet 2025. URL : http://journals.openedition.org/transtexts/2495 ; DOI : https://doi.org/10.4000/12u23
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