The authors would like to extend their warmest thanks to Mr Michael Tchasso and his team, founder and representative of the GIC Champignon de Bafoussam, for their collaboration and the valuable sharing of experience during the fieldwork. We would also like to express our gratitude to Mr Brice Nono Djomo, production manager since the GIC’s inception, for facilitating our access to the GIC for our interviews, as well as for his invaluable assistance, collaboration and sharing of experience.

Introduction

1Faced with rapid urbanisation, growing pressure on land and poor management of organic waste, African cities are confronted with major challenges in terms of sustainability, food security and socio-economic inclusion (Batel, 2016; Förster and Ammann, 2018; Régeard et al., 2023). Bafoussam, the regional capital of West Cameroon, exemplifies these tensions. This city of over 600,000 inhabitants is experiencing rapid, poorly planned urbanisation, which is undermining local ecosystems and exacerbating the precariousness of urban services (Tangmouo et al., 2020; Windzi and Tangmouo, 2022). In this context, urban myciculture that is, the cultivation of edible mushrooms (Djomene et al., 2020; Mouazan, 2021) in urban settings is emerging as an innovative, sustainable and inclusive practice capable of transforming urban constraints into opportunities.

3This article starts from the observation that niche urban agricultural practices such as mushroom cultivation could constitute adaptive socio-ecological systems in the sense of Ostrom (2009), capable of generating forms of urban resilience in the absence of institutional support. This hypothesis, however, remains to be demonstrated: not all urban agricultural practices meet the criteria of a resilient socio-ecological system, and mushroom farming itself has limitations and vulnerabilities that temper its potential for sustainability. It is precisely this demonstration that this article sets out to achieve, by posing the following question: to what extent does mushroom farming in Bafoussam constitute an adaptive socio-ecological system, and what ecological, social and institutional conditions explain both its emergence and its limitations as a lever for urban resilience in the Global South?

4To address this, the article draws on the analytical framework of socio-ecological systems (SES) (Berkes et al., 2000; Ostrom, 2009; Spiegelberger et al., 2018), enriched by contributions from Holling’s adaptive cycles (1973) to account for the evolutionary dynamics of the GIC, and Geels’ multi-level approach (2002) to analyse the conditions for scaling up. All situated within three fields of the literature on urban sustainability (Lieberherr-Gardiol, 2007; Harrington, 2016; Biely and Chakori, 2025), the circular economy (Aubry and Adoue, 2018; Abujder et al., 2025), as well as urban agriculture in Africa (Davies et al., 2021; Sogang and Monkouop, 2022; Aubry and Margetic, 2023). Empirically, the study is based primarily on a four-month immersion within the GIC Champignon, including repeated semi-structured qualitative interviews with the founder and his production manager, and systematic observations of production processes. The remainder of the article is organised as follows: following a presentation of the theoretical framework and methodology, the results are presented according to the three dimensions of SSE (ecological, social and economic, and institutional) before a discussion of the theoretical scope and implications for urban agriculture policies in African cities.

Theoretical framework: the socio-ecological approach

SSE, Holling’s adaptive cycle and Geels’ multi-level approach

5The concept of SSE was developed at the intersection of ecology and the social sciences to describe complex systems in which human and ecological components interact in a dynamic, interdependent and non-linear manner (Berkes et al., 2000; Ostrom, 2009; Hammelman et al., 2022; Téoule, 2025). According to Ostrom (2009), an SSE comprises four interdependent subsystems that directly structure our empirical analysis. The resource here refers to the organic substrates utilised, such as maize stalks, sawdust, peanut shells, rice straw, banana peels, as well as water and urban space. The resource system encompasses the GIC’s productive environment: the two production sites, supply chains and distribution networks. The actors include GIC members, trained producers, the network of mushroom growers in West Cameroon, as well as customers and consumers. Finally, the governance system refers to the set of rules (formal and informal) governing interactions between these stakeholders, such as knowledge sharing, self-financing through reinvestment, and adaptive diversification of substrates. These four subsystems constitute the operational framework from which data are collected and results analysed.

6The resilience of the system is understood, following Holling (1973) and Genin and Mazurek (2016), as the capacity to absorb disturbances (water and electricity cuts, the perishability of the mushroom, disruptions to the supply of mycelium and substrate) whilst maintaining the system’s essential functions, such as producing mushrooms, absorbing organic waste, preserving jobs and generating returns on investment. This operational definition of resilience, grounded in the GIC’s empirical data, helps to avoid an overly generic use of the concept. To account for the evolutionary trajectory of mushroom cultivation in Bafoussam, we draw on the adaptive cycles model proposed by Holling (1973), which describes how SSE systems pass through successive phases of growth, conservation, release and reorganisation. This framework allows us to interpret the emergence of the GIC Champignon as a phase of reorganisation following a phase of release triggered by the failure of formal waste management systems and employment schemes for young graduates. Far from being a static system, urban mushroom cultivation thus constitutes an SSE in constant reconfiguration, whose resilience is not a given but is built, step by step, from an institutional vacuum transformed into a productive opportunity. This framework shows how the GIC Champignon is gradually consolidating its functions despite recurring disruptions.

7The question of scaling up the GIC model to other Cameroonian cities is analysed through Geels’ (2002) multi-level approach, which distinguishes three levels: the niche (local and marginal innovations), the socio-technical regime (dominant practices, rules and infrastructure) and the landscape (macro-trends in the economic, institutional and environmental spheres). From this perspective, the Champignon GIC constitutes a niche innovation whose diffusion into the regime depends on an institutional transition (linked to official recognition, access to stable funding, and the creation of local mycelium laboratories) that has yet to be established.

Complementary theoretical contexts

8These interpretative frameworks fall within three areas of the literature that contextualise the case of the GIC Champignon, though they do not constitute independent analytical frameworks. Urban sustainability, understood as the capacity of cities to develop in an equitable, environmentally sustainable and economically viable manner (Lieberherr-Gardiol, 2007; Harrington, 2016; Zimmerer et al., 2021; Abujder Ochoa et al., 2025), provides the normative context within which the contribution of mushroom cultivation is assessed. The circular economy, which aims to extend the life of resources in contrast to the linear ‘extract-produce-consume-dispose’ model (Aubry and Adoue, 2018; Dorr et al., 2021; Fawaz and Duchemin, 2025), sheds light on the ecological dimension of resource subsystems and resource systems. Finally, the literature on African urban agriculture (Davies et al., 2021; Aubry and Margetic, 2023; Issifu et al., 2025; Tangmouo, 2025) helps to situate mushroom farming within the context of urban agricultural practices, whilst highlighting its specific compatibility with the constraints of dense African urban environments: low land use, year-round productivity, and relative institutional tolerance (Djomene et al., 2016, 2020). The articulation of these theoretical elements enables us to address the central hypothesis: mushroom farming in Bafoussam is likely to constitute an adaptive SSE, provided that its structural vulnerabilities are recognised and that the institutional conditions for its consolidation are analysed without idealisation.

Methodology

Study site

9Located in the highlands of West Cameroon, Bafoussam covers an area of 403 km² and has a population of over 600,000 (Tangmouo et al., 2020). The regional capital since 1960, the city has a rugged topography, characterised by a succession of valleys that are becoming increasingly poorly drained due to rapid and poorly planned urbanisation. The climate is tropical and humid, with an eight-month rainy season, resulting in average annual rainfall of 1,800 mm. The local economy relies mainly on retail trade, which is predominantly informal (PDU, 2013). The city is characterised by high levels of organic waste production (Kakeu-Tardy, 2018) and a growing trend towards urban agriculture (Coiffier, 2022). The GIC Champignon embodies this transition by operating two sites: one in the city centre, in the former premises of the agricultural delegation, and the other in a densely populated peri-urban area in the TPO district, on former open-field agricultural land. These sites illustrate the coexistence of dense urban space and emerging productive functions.

Key player in the field

10The promoter and founder of GIC Champignon, Mr Tchasso, is at the heart of the system under study. After obtaining a master’s degree in 2018 from the University of Dschang in rural agricultural geography, the country’s economic climate regarding youth employability remained unfavourable. He therefore decided to throw himself fully into mushroom production. The mushroom business was launched with very modest start-up capital, illustrating an entrepreneurial journey based on resourcefulness and self-financing. He states that he began his venture “with 3,600 CFA francs (CAD$8)”, a sum that enabled him to purchase the maize stalks required for production. However, his father had already familiarised him with the technique for producing mushroom spawn, and the basic equipment for artisanal sterilisation, worth 150,000 CFA francs (CAD$375), was already available. He also repurposed “storage bottles such as Calvé mayonnaise bottles” to supplement the equipment (promoter, June 2025). After the first production run, he sold the spawn and earned an income of 10,000 CFA francs (CAD$25). He “reinvested the entire sum every time” (project leader, June 2025). It is this constant reinvestment that has enabled his turnover to grow and reach its current level without receiving any external financial support. The initial location of his business is also significant. He started out in the centre of Bafoussam, in a former administrative building belonging to the district office of the Ministry of Agriculture. This space has been converted into a production site. Today, the site serves as an administrative office and order fulfilment centre, and houses a studio converted into a cultivation space, giving the impression of an artisanal mushroom cultivation laboratory. According to him, “mushroom cultivation is a passion, but also a response to our urban realities. Here, nothing goes to waste: waste becomes a resource” (developer, June 2025). The promoter’s motivations are manifold and stem from personal (heritage), social (a useful and rewarding activity) and economic (business opportunity) contexts. Actively involved in urban mushroom cultivation for five years, he chose this activity for three main reasons, which he himself ranks in order of priority. The very first is heritage: mushroom cultivation is a practice originally passed down by his parents, which he later supplemented with seminars. He states that he “was not trained in mushroom cultivation, as this knowledge is a legacy” (project leader, June 2025). This family connection forms the foundation of his commitment. The second reason is to “avoid idleness” (researcher, June 2025). Upon graduating from the University of Dschang, he was looking for a meaningful and fulfilling activity. Mushroom cultivation emerged as a solution to this personal and social need for integration. Finally, the third reason is commercial in nature. For him, mushroom cultivation represents a concrete economic opportunity, particularly through the transformation of waste into monetisable resources. This entrepreneurial approach is part of a pragmatic vision of urban agriculture as a source of income.

Data collection and analysis

11Data collection was based on three complementary field research methods over a four-month period at the two production sites, namely: (1) semi-structured interviews in-depth interviews lasting approximately 1 to 1½ hours and conducted iteratively throughout the immersion period with the project leader and their production manager at the two production sites; (2) direct and participatory observations of production processes and waste management. These observations were systematic in order to document the day-to-day operations of the GIC, the stages of mushroom production, and the management of by-products and waste generated; and finally, (3) a literature review based on local sources, technical reports and press data on mushroom cultivation in Bafoussam. This immersion took place from May to September 2025. The active involvement of the researchers in the GIC’s activities proved indispensable, both to compensate for their initial lack of knowledge in ecology and the circular economy and to foster a detailed and contextualised understanding of the group’s internal dynamics. Data processing was carried out continuously and manually, through the daily drafting of summary notes and the transcription of discussions into a structured Word document. This approach aimed to preserve the entirety of the information gathered and to ensure rigorous traceability of interactions and observations. The thematic analysis was conducted in a thematic and continuous manner, linking the empirical data with the four subsystems of Ostrom’s (2009) SSE framework. The integration of the theoretical framework and field data revealed three dimensions: an ecological dimension focusing on waste recovery practices and environmental adaptations (subsystems 1 and 2); then a social and economic dimension focusing on the benefits for GIC members and the community (subsystem 3); and finally an institutional dimension, highlighting the interactions between governance, constraints and resilience (subsystem 4).

Results

Ecological dimension: waste recovery and environmental adaptation

12Mushroom cultivation stands out as an intrinsically ecological activity, one of the major objectives of which is the recovery of organic waste and the reduction of environmental impact by transforming neglected residues into productive resources.

Waste recovery and pollution reduction

13At the heart of this practice lies the use of biodegradable agricultural and urban waste as substrates for mushroom cultivation. According to the promoter of the GIC Champignon: “We work with what the city throws away. Agricultural waste and sawdust become our raw materials. It’s our way of cleaning up the city whilst feeding people” (promoter, May 2026). The most commonly used raw materials include maize stalks (80%), supplemented with rice straw, peanut shells, pistachio waste, sawdust, banana skins and fallen leaves. This waste comes from local sawmills, carpentry workshops and agri-food industries such as MAISCAM (Cameroonian Maize Processing Company). These materials, often left to lie in the countryside or on the streets, are collected, sorted and reused to produce a healthy and nutritious food. The project leader states: “Any agricultural waste or any urban waste without plastics – that means I can use even banana skins, fallen leaves, in fact anything that decomposes, except plastics” (project leader, May 2026). This approach not only helps to limit the proliferation of waste in cities but also improves urban hygiene. It contributes to reducing visual and organic pollution, whilst making use of local resources available in abundance. The environmental impact is also reduced through the use of charcoal produced by carbonising waste at the end of the production process. This charcoal replaces fossil fuels and reinforces the sustainability of the operation. Another notable development is the transition to ‘100% compostable’ (EN 13432) biodegradable packaging. Whereas production previously used non-degradable plastics, manufacturers have adopted eco-friendly alternatives, thereby reducing plastic pollution and reinforcing their environmental commitment.

Almost complete recycling cycle

14Urban mushroom cultivation, although geared towards food production, forms part of a broader ecological approach based on the full utilisation of resources and the reduction of waste in urban areas. It is based on a circular principle where each stage of the process generates reusable by-products, contributing to the sustainable management of organic matter. Once the mushrooms have finished fruiting, the used substrates are not discarded but transformed into organic fertiliser. This natural compost is then returned to the soil to stimulate the growth of other crops, such as maize or vegetables, thus ensuring ecological continuity between production cycles. “The [maize] stalk and cob are used to grow my mushrooms, and once the mushrooms have produced, the remaining residues can be returned to the soil as another form of organic fertiliser to promote the development of the maize seed, and the cycle continues,” says the developer (June 2026). This logic of reuse does not stop there: the residues are also used to produce eco-friendly charcoal, reducing dependence on fossil fuels and strengthening producers’ energy self-sufficiency. This circular approach maximises the use of available resources, minimises final waste and helps preserve soil quality, particularly as mushroom cultivation requires neither large agricultural areas nor chemical inputs, significantly reducing chemical pollution and land degradation. In terms of yield, production varies according to growers’ capacity: small-scale producers achieve between 20 and 200 kg, whilst semi-industrial operations such as GIC Champignon can produce up to one tonne from a 100m² area over a three-month growing season.

15This scaling up is accompanied by rigorous management of spent substrates, which are systematically reused as compost, fertiliser or charcoal, thereby reinforcing their role in reducing urban waste and improving soil fertility. However, despite these advances, certain practices in traditional mushroom cultivation still pose environmental challenges. The use of wood for substrate sterilisation, whilst effective, increases pressure on local forest resources, raising concerns about the sustainability of this method. Furthermore, the use of non-biodegradable plastic bags for inoculation generates residual pollution that partially undermines the sector’s environmental efforts. Finally, the recent scaling-up of the GIC has necessitated the sourcing of rice husks from the satellite towns of Bafoussam (accounting for approximately 65%) from the towns of Foumban, 25 km away, and Mbouda, 30 km away, compared to 35% for Bafoussam itself, comprising rice husks (15%) and other waste (20%). These limitations call for consideration of ways to improve production techniques, notably through the adoption of more sustainable materials, substrates sourced from Bafoussam, and, finally, the search for energy alternatives with a lower environmental impact.

Environmental and technological adaptation

16Faced with climatic constraints, particularly the dry season which compromises moisture availability, the GIC has recently implemented technical solutions to stabilise production and ensure the continuity of fruiting cycles. As humidity is an essential factor for mycelium growth, automatic watering mechanisms and humidification systems have been installed in the cultivation rooms to regulate temperature and maintain optimal conditions. Two species dominate production in these controlled environments: oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus, Florida, Sajor-caju) and occasionally Volvariella, with development cycles ranging from 25 to 35 days depending on climatic conditions.

17However, these technical innovations face limitations in an urban setting, particularly in Bafoussam, where frequent power cuts disrupt the continuous operation of the equipment. To mitigate this energy instability, producers rely on petrol-powered generators, a solution which, although effective, leads to a significant increase in production costs and complicates the day-to-day management of resources. Access to water is another major constraint, managed by storing it in water tanks to anticipate interruptions in the public water supply and maintain the humidity necessary for fruiting. Furthermore, the issue of substrates remains central to optimising yields. According to the production manager at GIC Champignon, the best results are currently achieved using maize stalks, which are the most productive raw material. Other organic waste such as sawdust, rice straw, peanut shells or banana skins are used as a supplement when maize stalks are unavailable or out of stock. Aware of the need to improve their technical expertise in using these alternative substrates, the growers have enrolled in a specialised training course in China, aimed at strengthening their skills and adapting their processes to achieve equivalent yields, regardless of the material used.

18This proactive approach demonstrates a commitment to innovation and continuous improvement, based on learning and technology transfer. Despite the challenges posed by the urban environment, urban mushroom farming shows remarkable adaptability. It illustrates how an agricultural activity can be seamlessly integrated into the urban fabric whilst addressing contemporary environmental challenges. It thus embodies a promising path towards sustainable and resilient urban agriculture. This bottom-up ecological approach, drawing initially on family knowledge coupled with practical ingenuity and technical adaptations, strengthens urban environmental resilience.

Social and economic dimension: inclusion and local innovation

19The sector has established itself as a genuine driver of socio-economic development. Its success is based on a strategy of social inclusion, reasonably good profitability, and a dynamic of constant innovation in the diversification of products and practices.

Social inclusion and job creation

20The business began as a personal initiative. This individual endeavour quickly evolved into a significant source of employment, employing a permanent workforce of four staff members (three of whom are trained in agriculture) and a temporary workforce of around ten people, recruited during the intensive phases of substrate preparation and seeding. GIC Champignon employs a gender-balanced team among its permanent staff, comprising three women and one man. The women play a central role in the delicate stages of production and monitoring, particularly seeding, harvesting and drying. “Without them, the sector wouldn’t survive,” emphasises the project promoter (August 2025). Employees start on a salary of 50,000 CFA francs (CAD$125), which represents 150% of the monthly minimum wage according to the Cameroonian Ministry of Labour. However, this salary is not consistent. By way of comparison, the rent for a studio flat (one bedroom) has risen from around 12,000 to 20,000 CFA francs (CAD$30 to CAD$50) over the last decade. This situation leads these employees to also work from home to make ends meet.

21One of the most striking aspects of this social dimension lies in the impact of training programmes and the transfer of expertise. Through this initiative, more than 850 people have been trained in mushroom cultivation across more than ten towns in Cameroon, as well as four nationals from Chad and the Central African Republic. The profile of the beneficiaries reflects a focus on including people on the margins of the formal labour market or in career transition: “The majority of those trained are retirees or people who will soon be retiring (60%)” (production manager, July 2025). The others (40%) are employees who view mushroom cultivation as a secondary activity to “make ends meet and supplement their income” (production manager, July 2025). However, only 30% continue with the activity after the first harvests.

Profitability and economic growth

22The profitability of mushroom farming in Bafoussam is based on an ingenious economic model, founded on the processing of low-cost local resources. As the promoter points out (May 2025): “It’s profitable because how can you collect waste and make money from it?” This circular economy principle helps to limit expenditure on inputs, whilst ensuring local food production. His own financial model was built up gradually, without external support, starting with an initial capital of just 3,600 CFA francs (CAD$7.50) and the use of equipment belonging to his father (150,000 CFA francs (CAD$375)). This modest start illustrates the ability of the supply chain to self-finance through successive reinvestment, by using profits to improve infrastructure and increase production volumes. Thanks to this strategy, production has risen from a small-scale output of around 15 kg per season (three months) to 900 kg. 50% of the producers in Bafoussam trained by the GIC sell their harvest back to the group at a price of 1,900 CFA francs per kg (excluding costs). This system enables the GIC to consistently meet its customers’ needs and ensures that these small-scale producers can sell their harvest quickly. Furthermore, the training courses provide an additional source of income. The cost of the training is 25,000 CFA francs (CAD$62.50) to learn how to grow mushrooms and 25,000 CFA francs (CAD$62.50) to learn how to propagate spores. “We were getting so many requests that it slowed down our internal production between 2020 and 2021,” says the production manager (September 2025).

Table 1: Estimate of average monthly production plus that purchased from small-scale producers trained by the GIC Champignon

Year	Production by the GIC Champignon (kg/month/fresh)		Purchases from small-scale producers trained mainly by the GIC (kg/month/cost)	Total
2016–2017	Project development, home-based production	No issues		N/A
2018	15	25		40
2019	57	50		107
2020	81.7	80		161.7
2021	91.2	95		186.2
2022	70	100		170
2023	192.1	150		342.1
2024	183.2	190		373.2
2025	300	220		520

23This growth is directly linked to rising demand, particularly from supermarkets, catering services and health-conscious consumers. To meet this demand, producers have had to triple their capacity, whilst diversifying their product range (fresh, dried and processed mushrooms). The sector’s profitability thus relies on a combination of resource efficiency, local innovation and continuous adaptation to market needs. According to the production manager at GIC Champignon, the business model (equipment + inputs) required to start mushroom production and ‘achieve a profit of around 100,000 CFA francs (CAD$250) per month from the third month onwards amounts to 600,000 CFA francs (CAD$1,500), or for a profit of 30,000 CFA francs (CAD$75) per month, the investment amounts to 200,000 CFA francs (CAD$500)” (production manager, September 2025).

24The mushroom customer base comprises two main profiles: bulk commercial buyers and individual consumers with specific motivations. The first group includes supermarkets (16 in Douala, 5 in Yaoundé, 1 in Bafoussam), restaurants and catering services, one of which in Bafoussam orders at least 30 kg per week as well as reseller web. The latter group comprises diabetics, people with high blood pressure, the elderly and pensioners, who see the mushroom as a cell regenerator, as well as vegetarians and vegans, all attracted by its nutritional benefits. In addition to fresh mushrooms (sold for between 1,700 and 2,000 CFA francs per kg (between 4.25 and CAD$5), based on an estimated production cost of 1,300 CFA francs per kg (CAD$3.25)), processed products are also available: mushroom biscuits at 500 CFA francs (CAD$1.25) for 150g and 1,000 CFA francs (CAD$2.50) for 300g, as well as mushroom wine at 4,000 CFA francs (CAD$10) per 75cl bottle.

Table 2: Profile of GIC Champignon customers and structure of purchase prices (fresh, dried and processed) by week

Category	Regular quantity purchased per week		Purchase price in CFA francs/kg	Form	Resale price in CFA francs
Super wholesalers	Over 20 kg		1,700 F/kg	Cost	2,500 – 3,000
Wholesalers	Between 10 and 20 kg		1800F/kg	Fresh	2,500 – 3,000
Restaurants / Caterers	Over 30 kg			Fresh	Used in local dishes
Small retailers	Between 5 and 10kg		1,900F/kg	Fresh	3,000
Consumers	From 1 to 2 kg		2000F/kg	Fresh	Used in local dishes
Super-wholesalers/ Wholesalers	Bulk purchase.		15,000F/kg	Dried	20,000 – 25,000
Retailers	Purchase in small quantities.		20,000F/kg	Dried	22,000 – 25,000
Processed product		Size / Quantity		Purchase price at GIC
Mushroom biscuit		150g		500
Mushroom biscuit		300g		1000
Mushroom wine		75cl		4000

25Innovation lies at the heart of the economic strategy, particularly through the diversification of processed products and adaptation to the average household budget of low-income families. Mushrooms are sold in various forms: fresh, dried, as biscuits, in wine or on skewers. Future ambitions include the development of new products such as mushroom sardines or mushroom chocolate, with the aim of becoming the market leader in Africa. To overcome the initial lack of trust among consumers, who are often wary of the presence of chemicals, an intensive communication strategy has been put in place. The GIC Champignon organises free tasting sessions to introduce people to the product’s flavour and reassure customers. The promoter (July 2026) emphasises the importance of information and validation by healthcare professionals: “People need to be informed about the product and its benefits. That is why we have also involved doctors in our process.” This communication is not limited to social media, although the sector has a presence on Facebook, Instagram and TikTok. It also extends to less connected groups, such as “grandmothers”, through direct awareness-raising campaigns in neighbourhoods (with mobile stands) and informal local institutions (tontines). This inclusive approach enables the organisation to reach a wide audience and strengthen the social roots of urban mushroom cultivation within a local community where residents were accustomed to wild edible mushrooms.

26The urban mushroom farming sector, although dynamic and profitable, faces major structural challenges that are hindering its expansion and consolidation. These constraints require both resilient local adaptation and increased support from public authorities, particularly in terms of research, regulation and the organisation of the sector.

Major technical and logistical challenges

27The development of production is primarily hampered by difficulties relating to inputs, particularly the supply of high-quality spawn. Although mushroom growers have mastered the mycelium production process, the lack of adequate equipment “to comply with all the rules and ensure good seed productivity” (project leader, September 2025) compromises the reliability of the cultivation material. This situation forces producers to import their seeds or mother strains from foreign laboratories, notably in China or Belgium. The promoter (September 2025) explains that after testing “at least 54 people who claimed to produce good seed”, their seed “was simply not productive” and that he decided to source exclusively from “reliable sources”. This dependence on imports leads to “long waiting times” (promoter, September 2025), causing production stoppages and instability in crop cycles.

28The second major obstacle is the high cost of transport, which represents a recurring expense that is often disproportionate to the cost of raw materials. To illustrate this major obstacle in concrete terms, the project promoter (June 2025) cites a case the purchase of maize stalks in Foumbot, a satellite town of Bafoussam 25 km away, where the cost of transport (120,000 CFA francs (CAD$300)) far exceeded that of the raw material (70,000 CFA francs (CAD$175)). He (June 2025) concludes that it is “transport that eats up a lot of money”, thereby highlighting the logistical impact on the overall profitability of the business. The high cost of transport is due to the poor condition of the roads, particularly those leading to agricultural areas. This gradual deterioration of the road network lengthens delivery times, increases the risk of damage to goods and encourages transporters to raise their rates, making the supply of raw materials particularly costly for producers and leading to higher environmental costs. Added to this is the high perishability of fresh mushrooms, which begin to deteriorate in less than three days. The lack of suitable preservation methods poses a major challenge for marketing. To address this, producers use dryers, enabling them to preserve the dried product for up to two years. Although effective, this solution does not replace the need for preservation infrastructure for fresh produce, particularly for distribution to major cities such as Douala or Yaoundé.

Role of the State: the need to promote research

29Faced with these challenges, stakeholders in the sector express a clear need for institutional support, not only financially, but above all in terms of research, regulation and structuring. The main wish expressed by the project leader (August 2025) is the ‘promotion of student research’, in order to establish a ‘research-to-results process’ that links academic work to on-the-ground realities. He regrets that his own master’s thesis, defended in 2017 on ‘mushroom cultivation and improving living conditions for local communities’, was never followed up on or utilised by the relevant authorities, despite several requests for collaboration. The State is therefore called upon to “support stakeholders in the sector” not only in acquiring inputs or equipment, but also through a regulatory framework (promoter, August 2025). This would involve collaborating with bodies such as ANOR (Agency for Standards and Quality) or the CFCE (Centre for Business Start-up Formalities) “so that we can try to boost the creativity of businesses in Cameroon” (promoter, August 2025). This non-financial support is seen as essential for stimulating innovation, facilitating the formalisation of activities and strengthening the sector’s credibility.

Resilience and local adaptation strategies

30Despite these constraints, the mushroom GIC demonstrates remarkable resilience, developing adaptation strategies based on technical innovation, training and collective organisation. Technically, dependence on natural conditions, particularly during the dry season, is a major constraint. The lack of moisture leads to a significant drop in yields. To address this, producers are investing in mechanisation: they are “in the process of installing automatic irrigation systems” as well as a “humidity control system that will allow the room to be humidified” (project leader, July 2025). This approach to the reflects a desire not to “always rely on nature”, by creating controlled and reproducible growing conditions (project leader, July 2025).

31From an organisational perspective, stakeholders are organised within the ‘Western Cameroon Mushroom Growers’ Network’ (which has 18 members at the time of writing), which promotes ‘knowledge sharing’ and the pooling of resources (project promoter, May 2025). This network makes it possible, in particular, to “buy raw materials in bulk to reduce costs”, he states (September 2025), thereby strengthening the collective capacity to overcome logistical obstacles. Faced with the limitations of locally available training in mushroom cultivation, producers are investing in technology transfer by seeking training abroad. The members of the Mushroom GIC have “considered undertaking training in China”, convinced that technology is essential for improving yields and, above all, for diversifying substrates (project leader, September 2025).

“We’re going to send two people to spend one or two months in China to undergo training on different substrates other than maize stalks. It’s like a retraining process, to better understand the methods needed to achieve maximum results. Let me tell you something: in Cameroon, we produce using maize stalks; in China, they produce using sawdust, yet they achieve higher yields than we do. Whereas normally, based on the characteristics of the raw material, we should be getting better results than them. But they produce more than we do. It’s all about technology, about technology transfer – that’s why we’ve decided to do this. “They’ll be going for training by next month,” says the promoter (September 2025).

32Although no direct financial aid has been received, producers acknowledge the encouragement from certain local authorities. In Bafoussam, for example, the initiative was highlighted at an agricultural fair, where the GIC was ranked top among the award winners. This type of recognition is seen as an important symbolic lever for encouraging urban agriculture and strengthening the sector’s legitimacy in the public sphere.

Table 3: Summary of constraints and adaptation strategies or solutions implemented

Major constraint	Detailed description of the constraint (challenges)	Adaptation strategies and/or solutions implemented
Seed supply and quality (Mycelium)	The first challenge relates to the seed.	The GIC imports mother strains (G0, G1, G2) from laboratories in China and Belgium, as they have the necessary equipment.
	Long lead times after ordering seeds, causing production interruptions.	Mushroom growers are limited to propagating mother strains on-site.
	The lack of suitable equipment compromises quality and yield, forcing producers to import. Seed produced ‘by hand without a suitable facility’ does not yield well (Production Manager, September 2025).	The GIC plans to send two people to China for one or two months’ training to acquire the necessary technologies.
Managing climatic constraints (Humidity/ Temperature)	Lack of moisture and temperature issues, particularly during the dry season, leading to a drop in yield.	Implementation of adaptation measures so as not to ‘always rely on nature’ (project leader, September 2025).
	Need to mechanise production conditions.	Installation of automatic watering systems and a humidifier in the fruiting room to regulate humidity.
Access to energy and water	Frequent power cuts make it difficult to maintain optimal production conditions (required for humidifiers).	Use of generators to compensate for the cuts, although this leads to an increase in production costs.
	The crop requires a large amount of water, but there are regular water cuts in the town of Bafoussam.	Use of water tanks to store rainwater for use during cuts.
Transport and logistics constraints	Transport costs more than the price of the raw material itself, constituting the main item of expenditure alongside seeds.	The network of mushroom growers has implemented a new strategy: purchasing raw materials in bulk to reduce costs. Increased use of various substrates in Bafoussam
	Poor transport conditions for fresh mushrooms between Bafoussam (production) and Douala/Yaoundé (consumption). Packages are sometimes damaged by transport staff who are unaware of the product’s value.	Search for specific cardboard boxes to improve packaging. Fresh mushrooms are placed in boxes with holes for shipping.
Preserving the freshness of the product	Mushrooms are a perishable product with a shelf life of just three days when fresh.	Use of a dryer to dry the mushrooms, allowing them to be stored for up to two years.
	Storage problems for other local producers who do not have a dryer; they sell their surplus to the GIC Champignon.	The GIC buys surplus produce from small producers at 1,900 CFA francs per kilogramme to dry and resell it.
	Lack of techniques for preserving fresh mushrooms in tins.	The GIC is seeking training in the preservation of fresh mushrooms in tins.
Traditional and Non-Mechanised Production Methods	Sterilisation was artisanal and time-consuming, with a barrel holding “40 bundles that we sterilised for 6 hours” (project leader, September 2025).	Transition to a semi-industrial process. The new steriliser processes “at least 2,500 bundles, still over a period of 6 hours” (project leader, September 2025).
	Manual seeding, which is time-consuming (6 hours for 2,500 bales) and increases the risk of contamination.	Plans to purchase a seeding machine to move to semi-industrial seeding and reduce the time to 2 hours for 2,500 bales.
	Use of non-biodegradable plastics in the old method, contributing to pollution.	Switch to production using ‘biodegradable plastics’ to protect the environment.
Consumer mistrust and lack of information (Communication)	The main challenge is communication. “People are wary and think that the local mushroom contains chemicals” (Production Manager, July 2025).	Awareness campaigns and free tastings in households and savings groups
	Social media only reaches a certain group of people (those with Android phones), excluding part of the potential customer base, such as the elderly.	Collaboration with doctors to inform the public about the benefits of the product Presentation of mushroom products at agricultural fairs Awareness
Urban space constraints	Space is limited, forcing mushroom growers to use small areas (conservatories, backyards).	Construction of farms in peri-urban areas (second farm in the TPO district) to provide more space and accommodate climatic conditions.
Dependence on single substrates and suppliers	The system relies mainly on maize stalks. Risk of supply disruptions.	Diversification of suppliers by including those from the satellite towns of Bafoussam (Foumbot and Mbouda) and small-scale producers.
	The GIC is learning to use other substrates (20% of inputs) even though this is slightly less productive.	Sending staff to China aims to provide training on substrates other than maize stalks to maximise results and reduce dependence on maize.

Discussion

33An analysis of mushroom cultivation in Bafoussam reveals an emerging socio-ecological system that is both rooted in local dynamics and a driver of structural change. The history of the GIC Champignon in Bafoussam is a good illustration of the adaptive cycles model (Holling, 1973; Folke et al., 2004), which shows that mushroom cultivation functions as a constantly evolving socio-ecological system (SES) rather than a static system. The Liberation phase begins with the collapse of the traditional urban system, characterised by poor waste management and economic instability. This context creates a vacuum conducive to innovation. It is within this framework that the GIC emerges, by recycling organic waste to produce mushrooms, which corresponds to the Reorganisation phase. It thus transforms problems (waste) into solutions (food, jobs). This case highlights an untapped opportunity: biomass neglected by formal channels. It enriches SSE theory by showing that, in cities of the Global South, resilience can arise from the upcycling of urban waste.

34Although socio-ecological systems are often studied through the lens of the Commons and governance as per Ostrom, the case of Bafoussam reveals a different reality: governance that functions despite the absence or inefficiency of public institutions. A polycentrism born of necessity: The mushroom production system relies on several actors collaborating within the GIC (such as the Bafoussam Mushroom Growers’ Network and trained producers). This network was not established by a political decision but developed naturally to fill an institutional void. Unofficial local rules: Ostrom’s (2015) IAD (Institutional Analysis and Development) analytical framework helps to understand the rules governing this system. Although they are not enshrined in law, they are very real: sharing of experience, self-financing, diversity of substrates, and dependence on the supply of mycelium. These rules ensure the system’s stability, despite the state’s weakness. Two vulnerabilities lie at the heart of the system: (1) The need to import mycelium highlights a significant weakness. A truly autonomous SSE should be able to produce its own essential inputs locally. The GIC therefore remains partially dependent on external sources, which limits its resilience. (2) The predominant use of maize stalks (around 80% throughout the year) restricts the system’s ecological diversification and, consequently, its potential for adaptation and its foundation for a more circular operation.

35The mushroom cultivation developed by the GIC Champignon demonstrates how a local initiative can inspire broader policies, a process known as scaling up within socio-ecological systems (SES). Currently, this practice is a niche innovation within the urban landscape, according to Geels’ multi-level approach (2002, 2011). For it to become the norm in urban agriculture, an institutional transition is required: access to stable funding, the creation of local laboratories to produce mycelium, and official recognition. This case raises an important question: can this model be replicated elsewhere? The study shows that, in cities in the Global South, change does not always come from the top, but often from the bottom up, thanks to effective local initiatives. The GIC’s current success rests on its ability to adapt, to operate with limited resources, and to meet concrete needs. For this model to be adopted in other cities in Cameroon, institutions must recognise this flexible and cost-effective approach as a viable solution. This involves reviewing urban development strategies to incorporate local innovations, which are often overlooked but promote resilience.

36Still within the multi-level framework proposed by Geels (2002, 2011), the scaling up of mushroom cultivation in Bafoussam depends not only on institutional conditions, but also on the economic dynamics that reinforce the niche. The results show growing demand from supermarkets, caterers and households. As Davies et al. (2021), integration into urban food systems is a key driver for the dissemination of local agricultural innovations. At the same time, product diversification (biscuits, wines, etc.) illustrates an internal capacity for innovation consistent with the adaptive strategies described by Holling (1973) and the observations of Aubry and Margetic (2023) on value addition in urban agriculture. These economic dynamics consolidate the niche, but, in line with Geels (2011), they remain insufficient to transform the socio-technical system in the absence of local laboratories, appropriate funding and institutional recognition.

Table 4: Mushroom cultivation in Bafoussam as an adaptive socio-ecological system

STAGE	CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK	DESCRIPTION (Main Node)	DETAILS
1	INITIAL CONDITIONS OF THE SSE	African Urban Context	Poor infrastructure, Land pressure, Population growth, Institutional failure.
↓
2	ADAPTIVE CYCLE (Holling)	Trigger / Release Phase (Ω)	Urban crisis, Unmanaged waste, Economic instability. → Creates the Unused Opportunity (Neglected biomass).
↓
3	ADAPTIVE CYCLE (Holling)	Emergence / Reorganisation Phase (α)	Emergence of the Mushroom GIC. → Conversion of waste into productive substrates, Job creation, Hybridisation of urban spaces.
↓
4	GOVERNANCE (Ostrom/IAD)	Polycentric Governance by Necessity	Actors: GIC, Network of Mushroom Growers. → Local rules (IAD): sharing, self-financing. Resilience through circumventing the institutional vacuum.
↓
5	SSE / VULNERABILITY	Limitations and Vulnerabilities	Dependence on imported mycelium. → Partial autonomy of the SSE.
↓
6	TRANSITION (Geels MLP)	Scaling up and institutional transition	Niche innovation (Geels). → Need for funding, local laboratories, political recognition. Bottom-up change.
↓
7	OUTCOME / TRANSFORMED SYSTEM	Territorial reconfiguration	Blurring of boundaries between rural/urban, informal/formal, waste/resources. → The city as a territory of ecological and social production.

37The mushroom farming in Bafoussam is thus a valuable empirical example that forces SSE theory to consider urban adaptive systems where resilience is a strategy for circumventing institutional vacuums rather than optimised collaboration between actors and the state. Spatially, mushroom farming redefines urban uses. It occupies interstitial spaces (studios, courtyards, renovated buildings), converts administrative spaces into production laboratories, and illustrates a hybridisation between the dense city and productive functions. This blurring of boundaries between rural and urban, between waste and resources, between the informal and innovation, invites us to rethink the city as a territory of ecological and social production.

Conclusion

38The socio-ecological approach applied to mushroom cultivation in Bafoussam has made it possible to view mushroom production not merely as an agricultural activity, but as a near-complete socio-ecological system. It links material flows (waste, substrates, water), energy flows (sterilisation, humidity) and social flows (training, employment, knowledge). This theoretical framework has highlighted how these urban actors transform their environment to meet both food and ecological needs. However, a limitation should be noted despite the triangulation of data. The fieldwork relies primarily on the testimony of the GIC’s lead actor and subsequently its production manager, who provide a significant portion of the data. Although this focus is justified by their decisive role in the emergence of the system under study, additional and better-structured interviews with secondary actors (institutional actors, producers trained by the GIC, clients and consumers) would strengthen the robustness of the results, particularly regarding the dimensions of governance, social inclusion and product accessibility. Mushroom cultivation in Bafoussam represents an innovative and adaptive response to the environmental and economic challenges facing African cities, by transforming organic waste into productive resources, generating local jobs and promoting local food production. This socio-ecological system links sustainability, inclusion and the circular economy, whilst demonstrating the capacity of urban actors to devise endogenous solutions in the face of precarious infrastructure and the absence of effective public policies. However, improving the sustainability of this system will depend on increased institutional support (funding, seed laboratories, regulatory framework), better organisation into cooperatives to pool resources, and the scientific validation of empirical knowledge gained from the field. From an academic perspective, several avenues of research merit exploration: the analysis of carbon and energy footprints in mushroom production, the modelling of urban socio-ecological flows (waste > production > compost), inter-urban comparisons of mushroom-farming dynamics, and the study of local policies supporting sustainable urban agriculture. These perspectives pave the way for a broader reflection on urban resilience in the Global South, where mushroom cultivation is emerging as a transitional practice towards cities that are ecologically productive, socially inclusive and institutionally more robust.