1The olive tree has been playing a predominant role in Greece ever since antiquity. Present in ancient myths and connected to primordial deities, the olive was an inseparable part of ancient life. The cultivation of the olive tree, the consumption of edible olives and the production of olive oil date back to at least the 3rd millennia BC in Minoan Crete, as testified by surviving palatial records, by archival tablets inscribed with Linear A and Linear B script, and by archaeological findings, including, among others, artistic depictions of olive trees and olive harvesting, ancient olive mills, olive/oil jars, etc. Additionally, olive oil trading with ports of the Mediterranean is evident in the late Bronze Age in Minoan Crete and mainland Mycenaean centres (Hadjisavvas, 2003). After the destruction of the Minoan civilisation, the olive tree’s ideogram survived in Mycenaean Linear B tablets and was complemented by two additional ideograms to denote the olive fruit and the olive oil.
2Olive oil -pure or scented- as well as parts of the olive tree (i.e., leaves) were used in burial and other religious rites, for therapeutic and cosmetic reasons, and in many aspects of everyday life, such as gastronomy, since the olives and the olive oil were a fundamental part of people’s diet. The philosopher Theophrastus described in his works on botany the olive harvesting methods used during the classical era: picking the fallen olives, hand-picking the olives from the tree, and striking the branches with sticks, while later a tarp was laid on the ground to facilitate olive collection (Faklaris and Stamatopoulou, 2003). The sparse archaeological findings, in addition to few existing Hellenistic and Roman texts point to a three-fold oil production process used in antiquity, consisting of grinding, pressing and decantation (Pikoulas, 2003).
3Quite interestingly, the aforementioned olive harvesting and milling methods were used in the Greek territory largely unchanged up until almost 1970, when traditional olive farming and milling began being gradually replaced by industrialised methods (Karpodini-Dimitriadi, 2003). Thus, a long-lived intangible heritage constituting of knowledge, tools, and practices, pertaining to the care, harvesting and production concerning the olive tree, has been formed over centuries (Ekonomou, 2003). In addition, the Greek language contains many idioms and proverbs based on the olive tree, the olive oil and its special properties, and a number of popular folk songs pay tribute to the olive tree and its fruit, also comparing the beauty, sturdiness and usefulness of this wondrous tree with praise-worthy or coveted individuals (Giakoumaki, 2003). In the realm of superstition, the olive oil is used to detect and deter the “evil eye”. The religious symbolism and uses of the olive/olive oil have been handed down from antiquity to Orthodox Christianity: the olive tree is mentioned in the Old and New Testaments; the holy myrrh consists of scented virgin oil; the olive oil is an offering, a sanctifying symbol in the Greek Orthodox Church’s mysteries of Chrismation, Unction and Baptism and is also used in burial rites (Koumarianos, 2003; Yfantis, 2003). As in ancient times, the olives/olive oil continue to be fundamental in the Greek cuisine complementing a Mediterranean diet and sustain believers in religious fastening periods. Additionally, the olive oil and its derivatives are still used today, at an increasing rate, for cosmetic, aesthetic and well-being reasons, and continue to inspire the creativity of artists.
4This concise introduction testifies that the Olive in Greece constitutes a living heritage originating in prehistoric times and manifesting in the domain of knowledge and practices concerning nature. Inscribed since 2019 in Greece’s National Inventory of ICH, the olive heritage comprises methods, tools and practices, knowledge and skills which are transmitted from generation to generation; it is inseparably linked to the changing environmental and cultural landscapes of communities, providing the latter with a sense of identity and continuity; and it promotes intercultural understanding as part of a wider Mediterranean civilisation. What’s more, the olive culture can foster the sustainable development of rural communities by preserving and promoting the olive’s cultural, social, and environmental ecosystems, and by creating entrepreneurial opportunities (Kouri, 2024).
5However, the climate change is seriously threatening the olive groves of the Mediterranean, a reality that became too obvious recently, leading to steep increases in olive oil prices. Moreover, the replacement of traditional cultivation and production methods by intensive and, in some cases, ultra-intensive ones lead to the deterioration of the olive grove’s unique biodiversity, health and aesthetic appeal (Sfougaris and Christopoulou, 1997; Bousbouras, 2007), as well as to the rapid abandonment and decay of the diachronic sociocultural elements, which are linked to olive production, harvesting and milling.
6Tourism can provide a strong motive for preserving the olive’s living heritage. Indeed, olive tourism (OT) was coined in the 1980s and was considered as an element within other tourism types, such as agritourism, food, landscape and, more recently, cultural tourism (Parrilla-González et al., 2020; Pulido-Fernández et al., 2020; Campón-Cerro et al., 2014; Richards, 2002). Accordingly, the main motivation of OT are elements, activities, processes and resources revolving around the olive tree/oil, such as visiting olive groves, mills, museums and interpretation centres; participating in harvesting, other olive/oil processing activities (such as creating olive soap) and gastronomic activities involving olive/oil; purchasing related products; and, engaging in cultural, natural and well-being related activities, in which the olive/oil remains the focal element (Henderson, 2009; Cañero Morales et al., 2015; Orgaz et al., 2017; Parrilla-González et al., 2020).
7Travellers to olive sites can be characterised either as olive tourists or OT visitors, depending on the visit duration. Indeed, UN Tourism defines “tourism” as “the activity of visitors”; a “visitor” as “a traveller taking a trip to a main destination outside his/her usual environment, for less than a year” for purposes other than employment (UN-UNWTO, 2010, §2.9); and, classifies a “visitor” as either “a tourist (or overnight visitor) if his/her trip includes an overnight stay, or as a same-day visitor (or excursionist) otherwise” (UN-UNWTO, 2010, §2.13). Accordingly, the terms “visitors” and “olive tourism” will be used in this research.
8Today, OT has emerged as a type of special interest tourism on its own right, as signified by a steadily growing corpus of scientific literature (Hernández-Mogollón et al., 2019; Dias et al., 2023). Still, current research on OT remains predominantly constrained and rather case-specific, underscoring the necessity for additional investigation of both the demand and the supply aspects of OT (Hernández-Mogollón et al., 2019; Pulido-Fernández et al., 2020). Focussing on Greece, literature on OT is scarce (Hernández-Mogollón et al., 2019; Dias et al., 2023; Kouri and Kondakis, 2024) and the olive/olive oil is usually mentioned as one among many elements within agrotourism or gastronomy tourism (Moira et al., 2015; Pavlidis and Markantonatou, 2020). Studies on the demand-side of OT seem to be non-existent, although worth mentioning is Sabbatini’s et al. behavioural analysis on the olive oil consumption of tourists (not specifically olive tourists) in Crete, concluding with the need to further study the tourists’ composition (2016).
9Policies aimed at fostering OT in Greece are currently in nascent stages of development. The Ministry of Tourism collaborates with agricultural cooperatives to establish criteria for awarding a special designation to olive mills that welcome visitors, contingent upon meeting specified quality standards, including provision of guided tours, accommodation, catering and tasting services (Ministry of Tourism, 2022). Moreover, in 2015 the project “Biotourism and the Promotion of Olive Culture in Messenia” (co-funded by the local LEADER programme – Messenia) aimed to map and showcase to the tourism market Messenia’s distinct cultural and environmental resources, also focussing on the olive/oil culture (Biopolitics, 2015). Nonetheless, few tour operators and olive/oil producers initiate OT programmes and services independently, as cohesive OT policies or strategies for OT do not exist yet.
10Assuming a broad perspective, the Olive4All European project underscored the olive’s all-encompassing living heritage and sought to research, highlight and strengthen the links among cultural heritage, tourism and sustainable development. Within this framework, mixed-method research was planned and carried out to investigate the OT demand side in France, Portugal, and Greece. This paper presents some of the findings of the qualitative research on OT visitors carried out in Greece. It focusses on the visitors’ attitudes, perceptions, and insights regarding the olive heritage to allow informed suggestions on promoting OT in Greece. This study contributes to the growing OT literature, particularly concerning the exploration of the OT demand-side in Greece, which remains to this day largely uncharted.
11During the Olive4All project a qualitative study of OT visitors in France, Portugal and Greece was developed, to investigate several objectives: the demographic profiles of visitors; their behaviours, expectations, motivations and evaluations related to the visited olive sites; preferences for OT programmes and services; and suggestions for enhancing the preservation of olive heritage. Furthermore, the study sought to elucidate the significance and meaning of the olive heritage for visitors and examine how visits impact on their understanding and perceptions of this heritage, including its interconnections with other elements characteristic of the Mediterranean region. The paper primarily focuses on this latter set of research objectives. The methodology used was structured interviews targeting tourists visiting various olive sites, including olive museums, mills, olive groves, etc. The sample was set by the Olive4All partners at 55 individuals, considered an average size in empirical testing (Hennink and Kaiser, 2022). In Greece the investigation was carried out from February to April 2023 and initially the random sampling method was used. Consequently, face-to-face interviews were conducted at olive-related sites, including the Museum of the Olive and Greek Olive Oil in Sparta, and the Museum of Industrial Olive Production of Lesvos. Permission and cooperation were obtained from the Piraeus Bank Group Cultural Foundation managing these museums, as well as from the Olive Museum in Pelion, located in Volos. To reach this niche market, the snowball sampling method included enlisting various institutions actively involved in the olive industry to distribute the questionnaire among their stakeholders and contacts; the Captain Vassilis and Carmen Constantakopoulos Foundation; the Kalamata Olive Oil Taste Laboratory of the University of the Peloponnese; and the cultural route of the Council of Europe “The Routes of the Olive Tree”. The anonymity of respondents was ensured, and all respondents agreed to the questionnaire’s privacy policy.
12The questionnaire comprised mainly open-ended, exploratory questions. The answers were analysed using thematic analysis, while special attention was awarded to preserve subtle nuances and to avoid commonalities during inductive coding. The R statistical package (R Core Team, 2023) was used to produce descriptive statistics and graphs, where applicable. Non-parametric tests, such as the Mann-Whitney (1947) and Kruskal-Wallis (1952), were applied to ascertain dissimilarities between gender, age and counts of occurrence.
13Summarising some basic sociodemographic results, the sample turned out to be predominantly Greek (54 out of 55 respondents), characterising respondents as domestic OT visitors or excursionists. The gender ratio was 61.8% female / 38.2% male. Respondents were individuals of a mature age (mean age at 39 years old), high educational levels (40% had completed graduate and/or doctorate levels) and of medium-high income (Kouri and Kondakis, 2024).
- 1 Respondent 34 (Female, 73 years, Athens, retired)
“I learned how little I know about this invaluable resource1”
- 2 Q4: “Do you think you learned anything from this visit? If yes, please describe what you learned.”
14The research highlighted two main motives for visiting olive sites: a) the respondents’ wish to gain new knowledge, and b) their intention to satisfy a personal interest regarding various topics concerning the olive and its heritage (Kouri and Kondakis, 2024). Exploratory Question 42 sought to investigate whether these expectations were fulfilled and to which extent.
- 3 Respondent 32 (Female, 29 years, Athens, private sector)
- 4 Respondent 30 (Female, 56 years, Kalamata, civil sector)
15The results revealed that for the outweighing majority, an olive site visit was “an eye opener3”. The answers provided by 89% of respondents supported that the OT experience offered new insights on many different olive-related topics, while only one respondent stated not having learned something new4. A thematic analysis of the positive answers revealed six (6) main topics, on which respondents increased their knowledge (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Hierarchical coding frame of the respondents’ gained insights (Q.4).
Source: authors
The first main topic, mentioned by 38% of respondents, concerned new understandings of the olive’s history and heritage, particularly focussing on the olive’s diachronic presence and significance for human societies. It would seem that the olive tree’s history and cultivation were not widely known and instigated the respondents’ interest, who seemed particularly impressed by the tree’s diachronic presence and contribution.
“I learned that the olive cultivation and the olive oil production has been a wealth-producing resource since ancient times.” - Respondent 18 (Female, 22 years, large peripheral city, seasonal jobs)
“As an archaeologist I learned additional information about the history of the olive and the olive oil production in our country from ancient times to today. I grasped the diachronic importance of this exceptional fruit for our country.” - Respondent 22 (Female, 39 years, Athens, private sector)
Secondly, many respondents (33%) gained new insights on various topics, such as the olive’s/oil’s by-products or various uses. Other answers centred on learning more on the quality characteristics of the olive oil, on olive-oil tasting as well as on discerning the olive varieties.
“Olive-oil tasting, to discern the olive’s varieties and the olive oil quality.” - Respondent 49 (Female, 25 years, large peripheral city, private sector)
“I learned much information, which I heard for the first time in my life, such as the [oil’s] content in Vitamin E…” - Respondent 2 (Male, 38 years, large peripheral city, private sector)
“Olive-oil tasting, to discern the olive’s varieties and the olive oil quality.” - Respondent 49 (Female, 25 years, large peripheral city, private sector)
“I learned much information, which I heard for the first time in my life, such as the [oil’s] content in Vitamin E…” - Respondent 2 (Male, 38 years, large peripheral city, private sector)
For almost 30% the olive site visit offered new information on traditional and modern cultivation, harvesting and milling methods; on tools and machinery involved; and, on other relevant topics. One respondent was concerned about the bottling and standardisation issues, demonstrating knowledge about a main challenge pertaining to the exportation of Greek virgin olive oil.
“…about the industrialised oil production in Greece and the development of the industrial production.” - Respondent 39 (Male, 41 years, large peripheral city, private sector)
“…about this area’s past concerning the olive oil production and the traditional way of producing olive oil.” - Respondent 43 (Female, 39 years, island city, private sector)
A noteworthy share of respondents (22%) also mentioned their new-gained knowledge on four basic dimensions, which make up Hawkes’s model for sustainable development (2001), such as the olive’s socio-cultural/intercultural, economic, and environmental aspects. Nonetheless, the social and cultural aspects were more often mentioned, signifying the respondents’ stronger learning interest on such topics.
“The relation of people with the olive cultivation, how important this is for their lives, their diet, their everyday actuality.” - Respondent 50 (Male, 40 years, Athens, researcher)
“…how important the olive was and still is in the productive economy and social life.” - Respondent 36 (Female, 43 years, Athens, civil servant)
Some respondents (20%) gained new insights on specialised technical aspects concerning the olive, such as, the diverse olive varieties; the cultivation, harvesting and overall care requirements of the olive trees; the olive’s organic cultivation; the definition of an olive tree’s age; the importance of centennial trees, etc.
“I learned some things about the different species of olive trees, the amount of water they need to bear olives, etc.” - Respondent 1 (Male, 34 years, large peripheral city, researcher)
“I learned that the fruit’s harvesting has very specific rules and requirements as well as that the care for the trees is very specific.” - Respondent 9 (Female, 43 years, large island city, fixed-term contract)
Finally, some respondents (18%) mentioned learning new information on the olive oil production process.
“The new knowledge focusses on (…) the stages followed to transform the olive fruit to various olive oil types.” - Respondent 42 (Male, 47 years, Athens, education)
16The above results corroborate that two of the main motives for visiting an olive site (i.e., quest for knowledge and personal interest) were largely addressed, as the respondents were able to describe as well as to comment positively on the new insights gained.
- 5 Respondent 51 (Female, 23 years, large peripheral city, private sector)
“The olive tree is an ancient and important cultivation in the Mediterranean and represents an important element of the landscape in the region. 5”
- 6 Q.6: “To what extent has this visit influenced your notion of the importance of the olive heritage, (...)
17Having established the positive educational contribution of the olive site visit, exploratory Question 66 sought to investigate whether this visit also influenced the visitors’ notions regarding the sociocultural importance of the olive heritage and to which extent. The codification and subsequent quantification of the respondents’ answers revealed that the majority (75%) expressed a positive to a very positive opinion regarding the visit’s impact (“Moderately+” to “Extremely”). Only 9% expressed more negative views (“Moderately-” to “Not-at-all”), while 16.5% of the sample population (mostly male) did not answer, providing no additional clues on the visit’s impact (Table 1).
Table 1: Respondent opinions and trends regarding the visit’s degree of impact by Gender, Place of Residence and Level of Education
Source: authors
18There was no statistically significant difference in the age distributions across the question’s categories (p-value=0.689). Similarly, educational level did not significantly affect participants’ perceptions (p-value = 0.33), with over 65% of responses classified as “Moderately +” and “Very much” across all education levels. However, residence type affects perceptions (p-value = 0.023); urban participants value the impact of olive heritage-related visits more than their rural counterparts. This difference likely reflects varying priorities and access needs to olive-related assets and services between rural and urban areas.
19A subsequent thematic analysis of the given answers allowed the categorisation of the visitors’ post-visit notions on the olive’s contribution in three main dimensions: a social, a cultural and an economic one (Figure 2).
Figure 2: Hierarchical coding frame of the respondents’ notions of the olive’s importance following an olive site visit (Q.6)
Source: authors
Regarding the social dimension, the majority of respondents underlined that the visit helped them to realise the olive’s/oil’s central position in everyday life. They particularly stressed the olive’s role in strengthening social ties and links, since harvesting and processing, especially in mountainous areas, is an arduous affair, demanding teamwork and cooperation.
“I already knew many things, some I didn't know, and of some I was unaware. The overall contact with all these topics and the complete picture someone gets from such a visit is an excellent opportunity to understand in a more thorough way, the importance and contribution of the olive tree to the life and development of society, human relations, the trade…” - Respondent 27 (Male, 46 years, large peripheral city, freelance)
The cultural dimension was also underscored, as the olive was recognised as a significant element of the local and national intangible heritage, as a sacred component of religious rituals and as an integral part of local history.
“…I have not visited anything similar before and the knowledge that was offered to me, made me understand that the management of the olive tree is an important element of the wider local cultural identity.” - Respondent 11 (Female, 27 years, large peripheral city, private sector)
“I realized that there is a "ritual" surrounding the production of the oil, which is a process that must be preserved.” - Respondent 54 (Male, 39 years, island city, private sector)
Despite the question’s sociocultural emphasis, a small share of respondents focussed on the olive’s economic impact. This deviation from the question’s wording underlines that the respondents grasped and clearly acknowledged the vital economic contribution of the olive/oil production. In effect, respondents attributed to the olive the generation of income for the country and for local communities, the support of industrial development and the potential to decentralise tourism.
“… income from olive products is a key motivator for the rural population. In addition, with the acquisition of commercial signs (PDO, PGI), a significant number of areas in the Greek region are highlighted, a fact that adds positive elements to the effort to develop them as areas of mild and alternative tourism, but also as environmental points of interest.” - Respondent 20 (Female, 22 years, large peripheral town, student)
Within this dimension, environmental considerations were also mentioned, even though faintly, as few respondents focussed on the importance of the consistency of raw materials and on the recognition of pristine olive landscapes as environmental points of interest.
“Through these few visits, I found out […] the importance of consistency and raw material for the quality of the exported production.” - Respondent 42 (Male, 47 years, Athens, education)
- 7 Respondent 34 (Female, 73 years, Athens, retired)
“The olive is much more than what the average person may think…7”
- 8 Q.8: “What does the olive heritage represent for you, both as natural heritage and as tangible and (...)
20Exploratory Question 88 sought to investigate respondents’ personal perceptions of olive heritage, examining its significance to them as both a natural and a cultural heritage, encompassing tangible and intangible aspects. The thematic analysis of the offered answers highlighted seven (7) main themes, which were further analysed using the variables of Gender (Table 2), Place of residence and Education (Table 3).
Table 2: Categorisation and occurrences of olive visitors’ perceptions of olive heritage in the order mentioned, by Gender
|
Olive heritage
representations
|
|
Perceptions in the order mentioned by Gender (Male – Female / M – F)
|
|
Accumulated results
|
First
|
Second
|
Third
|
Fourth
|
Fifth
|
|
Freq.
|
Pct
|
M
|
F
|
M
|
F
|
M
|
F
|
M
|
F
|
M
|
F
|
M
|
F
|
|
Cultural/historical element
|
28
|
3,8%
|
9
|
19
|
5
|
11
|
2
|
5
|
2
|
2
|
0
|
1
|
|
|
|
Everyday life element
|
18
|
19,8%
|
4
|
14
|
2
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
3
|
1
|
0
|
|
|
|
Environmental resource
|
16
|
17,6%
|
7
|
9
|
4
|
4
|
2
|
4
|
1
|
|
0
|
1
|
|
|
|
Diet/gastronomy
|
13
|
14,3%
|
6
|
7
|
2
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
1
|
1
|
|
|
|
|
|
Economic resource
|
12
|
13,2%
|
5
|
7
|
2
|
3
|
1
|
4
|
1
|
|
|
|
1
|
0
|
|
Outstanding value
|
4
|
4,4%
|
1
|
3
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
2
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Social resource
|
1
|
1,1%
|
0
|
1
|
|
|
|
|
|
1
|
|
|
|
|
|
Sustainability
|
1
|
1,1%
|
0
|
1
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
0
|
1
|
|
|
Source: authors
Table 3: Categorisation and occurrences of olive visitors’ perceptions of olive heritage in the order mentioned, by Place of Residence and Level of Education
Source: authors
21No significant difference is observed in representations of olive heritage by education level (p > 0.05) within or between choice rankings. Regarding residence, though, significant differences are noted between participants’ first and second choices (p = 0.0057 and p = 0.0232), which are summarized as follows: urban participants view olive heritage as crucial for daily life with environmental importance, while rural participants emphasise its cultural, historical, and economic aspects. No other significant differences (p > 0.05) exist between other choices of rural and urban residents.
22Briefly, respondents linked the olive heritage mainly to culture and history, but also to their everyday lives. They also recognised the environmental dimension of the olive heritage as well as the latter’s contribution to nutrition and gastronomy. The olive’s economic, social and outstanding value were also mentioned, while one respondent favoured a more encompassing view describing the contribution of the olive heritage to sustainability (Figure 3).
Figure 3: Hierarchical coding frame: Representations of the olive heritage
Source: authors
23Elaborating, the theme appearing most often in respondents’ answers -particularly among rural residents and women- was the perception of the olive/olive tree as a significant cultural and historical element, shaping to some extent the Mediterranean and, mainly, the Greek identity. Five (5) additional sub-themes stood out (Figure 4).
Figure 4: Hierarchical coding frame: Representations of the olive heritage/ Elaboration of Theme 1: Cultural-Historical element
Source: authors
The first sub-theme, “Culture and identity”, was mentioned 17 times, mainly connecting the olive tree to Greek culture and identity. Other sub-themes connected the olive tree to “culture” in general and to “the Mediterranean and the Mediterranean identity” to a lesser extent.
“It represents my culture and how I grew up…” - Respondent 7 (Female, 25 years, large peripheral town, private sector)
“My nationality, since all those mentioned above are closely intertwined with Greece.” - Respondent 24 (Female, 56 years, large peripheral town, retired)
The second strongest sub-theme was “History”, as the olive tree was viewed as part of living history (particularly through the surviving centennial trees), local history, Greece’s agricultural history, while one respondent mentioned the tree’s connection with the development of the Mediterranean societies over time.
“Greece is a country with rich agricultural history, [the olive] is part of Greece and its development…” - Respondent 19 (Female, 21 years, Athens, unemployed)
“The olive tree evolved alongside the civilizations that developed on the shores of the Mediterranean.” - Respondent 33 (Male, 44 years, Athens, private sector)
The olive tree as “Heritage” is the third sub-theme, within the larger theme “Cultural-Historical Element”, mainly focussing on the intangible aspect through the presence of the olive tree and its products in religion, traditions, customs, proverbs, myths, ceremonies. For respondents, it also encompassed the preservation of traditional ways, methods and tools to cultivate and protect the olive tree and produce olive oil. The olive tree was also linked to “local heritage” and “our heritage”, showing increasing degrees of appropriation of the olive heritage by some respondents.
“a big part of our intangible and material cultural heritage (myths, morals and customs, but also olive mills, oil production and storage tools) are related to the olive and the production of the olive oil. It is a living part of our history, which we must highlight and protect…” - Respondent 22 (Female, 39 years, Athens, private sector)
“[the olive] is present in our religion, morals, customs and proverbs. Therefore, it has also a significant cultural underpinning.” - Respondent 47 (Female, 56 years, large peripheral town, freelancer)
“Links to antiquity” comprise another recurring sub-theme with mentions of the goddess Athena and the olive branch as the prize of Olympic winners. Some respondents also highlighted the significance of the olive tree to the ancient Greek culture and ancient local history.
[the olive tree] “…represents our relation to the culture of antiquity…” - Respondent 21 (Female, 27 years, Athens, private sector)
“I believe that the heritage of the olive tree is very important as it is a quintessentially Greek tree with great importance since ancient times, not only for livelihood reasons but also for symbolic ones, for example goddess Athena.” - Respondent 19 (Female, 21 years, Athens, unemployed)
Finally, the olive tree’s “symbolic value” was underscored by participants, who identified it as a symbol of ancient Greece and emphasised its symbolic meanings manifesting through traditions.
“Symbol of ancient Greece!” - Respondent 45 (Female, 37 years, Athens, civil servant)
24The two last sub-themes further stress that a number of respondents were quite knowledgeable about the ancient provenance of the olive tree and its heritage and, especially, of its diachronic symbolic importance to the ancient societies, which cultivated it. This is quite understandable, as the sample was almost exclusively domestic. Nonetheless, in tandem with the new-gained insights that the visitors gained on the olive’s history and heritage (see Diagr. 1), these results also support the successful dissemination of relevant information by the visited olive sites.
25Returning to Diagram 3, the second main theme within the respondents’ answers was the olive as a significant “element of everyday life”, assuming various forms. In this theme, men slightly outnumbered women, and urban respondents were more prevalent.
26Μost respondents mentioned the olive as an integral part of their family history, traditions, customs, upbringing and familial moments.
27An equal share mentioned the olive’s central place in their everyday routines, ranging from using olive oil as medicine and in cosmetics, to using it in cooking and for personal hygiene reasons.
The olive was also viewed as an element of smaller community units, but also of a wider scale, encompassing the Mediterranean way of life, as it provides information on the development of Mediterranean societies.
“As a Greek, the olive is linked with my memories and images since my childhood. I remember gathering olives once as a child in Crete, which is imprinted positively in my memory. I remember the smells and the feeling of being in the stillness and cool air of the mountain, part of a team with an important job to complete. I also remember my great grandmother putting olive oil on her skin, when she got burnt during cooking and do the same today.” - Respondent 36 (Female, 43 years, Athens, civil servant)
“I had not realized how important the presence of the olive and its derivatives can be for our lives. To me the olive tree means family, labour, love, history.” - Respondent 40 (Female, 45 years, Athens, private sector)
“The olive and the olive oil are the definition of family. Even today, in small communities the family picks the olives and everyone eats together (especially on Sundays), where the olive oil is present in everything on the table.” - Respondent 48 (Male, 67 years, Paris, retired)
The olive’s environmental dimension was evident, particularly among female (3/4 of respondents) and urban respondents. The main discerned sub-themes included:
-
A person’s link to nature
For most respondents the olive tree represented a strong connecting link to the natural environment and the circle of life, arousing aesthetic pleasure and positive feelings, as well as heightening the senses. The olive tree was defined as beautiful and long-lived, and a number of respondents focused on the odours, stillness, peace and cool air of the olive groves; the smell of the olive mills during harvesting; and, the characteristic silver colour of leaves reflecting the sunlight, also associating the olive tree to the summer and the sea.
“It characterises the landscape in many regions of Greece with the characteristic colour of the leaves and the smell of the olive mills during the harvest season.” -Respondent 50 (Male, 40 years, Athens, researcher)
“For me, the olive tree represents the Mediterranean in general and especially Greece, summer and the sea.” - Respondent 9 (Female, 43 years, large island city, fixed-term contract)
The olive tree was defined as a morphological characteristic of the Mediterranean and, particularly, of the Greek landscape, aided by the soil and the climate to thrive. The contribution of the olive’s cultivation to preserve the soil’s richness and biodiversity was also mentioned, revealing the respondents’ increased understanding of the potential environmental benefits particularly of traditional cultivation methods.
“The olive as a tree represents a morphological feature of Greece and is found not only in plains but also on mountain slopes. It is intertwined with the Greek province.” - Respondent 42 (Male, 47 years, Athens, education)
“The olive tree is an ancient and important cultivation in the Mediterranean and represents an important element of the landscape in the region. The olive tree has survived for thousands of years and its production continues to the present. In addition, the olive tree contributes to the preservation of soil richness and biodiversity in the areas where it is cultivated.” - Respondent 51 (Female, 23 years, large peripheral city, private sector)
Few respondents underlined the olive tree as an ancient element of the Mediterranean landscapes, but also as an environmental heritage of localities in Greece.
“Some olive trees, for example, are over 100 years old, and bear a history for civilisation, which are [sic] important to be preserved for the years to come.” - Respondent 26 (Male, 37 years, large island city, private sector)
“[the olive tree] represents the connection to our roots, nature and culture. It is a part of the identity of the place and its people.” - Respondent 38 (Female, 35 years, Athens, doctorate research)
Olives and the olive oil also represented a fundamental dietary element for a significant number of respondents, who were exclusively female. The olive was linked to the Mediterranean diet, in general, but also to the respondents’ everyday cooking. The olive’s nutritional value and health attributes were also stressed, as was the olive’s contribution to gastronomic developments, which evolve upon the foundations of traditional recipes.
“It is very important, now the olive oil is the main component of our diet, especially in the Mediterranean, where the climate and the landscape favours the cultivation of olive trees.” - Respondent 18 (Female, 22 years, large peripheral city, seasonal jobs)
The olive’s economic potential was often highlighted, equally so by men and women, though rural respondents were more prominently represented. For respondents, the olive represented “the Green gold – the treasure of the country”, a “national product” and, even, an opportunity for professional engagement and entrepreneurship. More extensive views encompassing the olive’s contribution to the Mediterranean people’s income, but also more localised ones concerning the olive as a source of income for families were also stated. Accordingly, respondents appeared to strongly realise the olive’s significant contribution to the household, community, national and Mediterranean economies.
“The olive tree heritage represents contemporary/actual new opportunities for professional activity.” - Respondent 9 (Female, 43 years, large island city, fixed-term contract)
“The olives and the olive oil are elements that sustain my family financially.” - Respondent 52 (Female, 23 years, rural peripheral village, unemployed)
“The olive is a very important cultivation for a large number of people throughout the Mediterranean basin, and therefore an important source of income.” - Respondent 50 (Male, 40 years, Athens, researcher)
- 9 Respondent 34 (Female, 73 years, Athens, retired)
- 10 Respondent 35 (Male, 71 years, Athens, retired)
- 11 Respondent 32 (Female, 29 years, Athens, private sector)
- 12 Respondent 10 (Female, 56, Kalamata, civil sector)
28The last theme concerned the “outstanding value” of the olive heritage, described as “true treasure9”, “divine gift10”, “green gold11”, “the past, present and future12”. These plethoric expressions echo the Mediterranean temperament, but also support the affinity felt towards the olive tree and the recognition of its fundamental contribution to every aspect of human life.
29This research shed light on the attitudes and perceptions of domestic OT visitors in Greece regarding the olive heritage. Among other results, it has revealed that said visitors are highly educated, motivated by a wish to learn (Kouri and Kondakis, 2024). As Greeks, they share a cultural background, in which the olive heritage has a prominent, diachronic presence. The olive’s sociocultural resilience becomes evident in the poetic, affectionate language that many respondents used to describe their personal perceptions, memories and connections to the olive. For many respondents the olive tree characterises the Greek landscape and plays an essential role in nourishing and supporting families and communities. The olive’s links to antiquity are also appreciated by (particularly rural) respondents, who regarded it as intangible heritage, as a potent cultural symbol of measure, purity and peace, and even as a factor shaping the Greek and the Mediterranean cultural identities and relations. The highlighted symbolic and identity-constructing value of the olive echoes Fournier’s assertion that the olive transforms into heritage for communities associated with olive landscapes, “because it represents local identity and is a choice mark of this identity” (2005, p. 102).
30Therefore, the surprise of some OT visitors that many aspects of the olive were unknown to them is quite interesting, as it points to a lack of knowledge on a neuralgic, diachronic and intercultural element. This deficit could be attributed to urbanisation and the dissociation of modern people from agriculture, and particularly from olive cultivation and its concomitant living sociocultural heritage. This reality poses a veritable threat to the latter, particularly in light of the replacement of traditional olive cultivation and production methods by industrialised ones. On the other hand, the overwhelming majority of respondents evaluated very positively the impact of the olive site visit on developing their understanding of the olive’s contribution in shaping identities, social relations, trade, cultural expressions and everyday life on a local and a Mediterranean scale. This further supports the contention that positive emotions are generated in tourists, when learning experientially about the olive/oil cultivation/production processes (Fields, 2002).
31Since olive site visits incorporating educational elements on the olive heritage are very well-received by domestic OT visitors, OT programmes should aim to offer specialised knowledge and experiences on various aspects of the olive and its heritage, catering to the strong interest and expectations of this knowledgeable domestic market. Moreover, as olive-related personal memories and experiences are important to domestic visitors, OT programmes should bring constituents in contact with the customs and traditions of their own communities. Even more, considering the olive’s Mediterranean significance, OT programmes should aim to expand the participants’ understanding of the olive heritage as an intercultural, inter-mediterranean (and, increasingly, ecumenical element since the olive is now cultivated in Australia, China and, even, Germany), uniting peoples and cultures through practices, exchanges, and trade. These action-orientations are particularly significant in view of the changing landscapes, olive production methods and the abandonment of traditional communities and heritage practices, as they can foster the protection and dissemination of the olive’s living heritage.
32This research also revealed the OT visit’s positive impact on the respondents’ perceptions regarding the olive’s economic contribution to the household, community, national and, even, Mediterranean economy, by supporting industrial production, entrepreneurship, and tourism decentralisation. Environmental notions of the olive heritage were expressed mainly as respondents’ personal viewpoints; namely, individual memories linked to familial moments, sensorial stimuli (e.g., smells, colours, aesthetically pleasing, etc.) and psychosomatic effects (e.g., calmness, peace, sense of summer, etc.) aroused by the olive/olive groves. The olive tree was also recognised as a characteristic, ancient element of the Greek and the Mediterranean landscapes, constituting the environmental heritage of localities, which is supplemented by centenarian olive trees, while some respondents grasped the contribution of traditional olive groves to environmental biodiversity. In this sense, the perception of the land and the olive trees as “wealth”, a “family inheritance serving as a link between the generations” and therefore, of “heritage”, evident also in other Mediterranean settings (Bertin, 2023, p. 147), is here supported.
33Comparatively, sociocultural perceptions are more frequently expressed, whereas the economic, as well as the environmental aspects of the olive heritage concern domestic OT visitors, albeit to a smaller degree. This could be explained by the seamless integration of the olive heritage into the Greek social and cultural fabric, rendering it more easily accessible, compared to the environmental, and especially the economic aspects, which require increased degrees of understanding and specialisation. Nonetheless, as aforementioned, the expansion of intensive and ultra-intensive farming methods leads to the gradual abandonment of traditional cultivation methods in plains and stone-wall terraces, in the process increasing the use of herbicides and pesticides and destroying the grove’s invaluable ecosystem. Moreover, the climate change poses a real threat to the long-term survival of the olive trees in the Mediterranean basin, as well as to the olive oil production, creating great challenges for the producers and raising the prices of the olive oil. Particularly in Greece, it exacerbates the problem of domestic olive oil standardisation and bottling, which facilitates the oil’s internal circulation and exportation in bulk at bargain-basement prices, with detrimental effects on the economy (Oliver, 2019; EDOE et al., 2023).
34Subsequently, the need to adopt policies and strategies that effectively support the sustainability of the olive-related environmental, social and cultural resources while promoting the economy is pressing. To this end, raising awareness among the general population is fundamental. In this investigation the lack of a deeper awareness of the economic and environmental dimensions of the olive became apparent. On the other hand, the considerable impact of olive sites as spaces of informal education was also highlighted. Therefore, OT programmes should also aim to mediate the olive’s substantial environmental and economic facets, apprise and sensitise non-experts of the alarming threats facing the olive and its heritage, raise awareness and prompt to relevant protective and restorative action.
35Another observation deriving from this research concerns the domestic market’s strong interest on various aspects of the olive oil, as expressed by the new insights gained on “Olive and olive oil” and “Olive oil production process” (Figure 1) gathering most answers (28 mentions, in total). Additionally, respondents emphasised the olive oil’s routine use, also in gastronomy and cooking, thus reinforcing the olive’s centrality in the Greek and the Mediterranean daily life. Accordingly, the olive oil arouses the domestic visitors’ interest, possibly because it is in everyday use and, as such, easily accessible. On the other hand, it would seem that too little is generally known on the olive varieties and the olive oil’s properties, quality characteristics, alternative uses, production methods and derivatives. These aspects seem to remain the experts’ domain, creating a market window for relevant OT programmes addressed to a non-expert audience, including relevant experiential workshops and tasting opportunities. After all, one of the main OT attractions is its gastronomic component, reflected in offering oil tasting opportunities and dishes harmonised with oil (Pulido-Fernández et al., 2020).
36Concluding, this investigation has revealed that domestic OT visitors are aware of and interested in the cultural (tangible and intangible heritage; gastronomy), environmental (olive landscapes; care of the olive tree), well-being (psychosomatic benefits), as well as economic (production methods; products; entrepreneurship) aspects of the Olive. These findings support the links already drawn between OT and other special interest tourism types, such as gastronomic tourism, agrotourism, landscape tourism and enotourism (e.g., Campón-Cerro et al., 2014; López-Guzmán et al., 2016; Parrilla-González et al., 2020; Pulido-Fernández et al., 2020). Additionally, the robust and diachronic sociocultural dimension of the olive heritage, supported also by this primary investigation, links OT to cultural tourism (e.g., López-Guzmán et al., 2016; Orgaz Agüera et al., 2017; Bitsani et al., 2019; Kouri and Kondakis, 2024). Finally, the inclusion of the olive as a basic element in wellness tourism offers physical, psychological and spiritual outlets to the stressful and demanding contemporary lifestyles, an advantage that is already being capitalised to some degree in current OT products offered in Greece (for example, see “The Olive Farm” in Crete).
37Consequently, the potential of Olive Tourism to develop further as a special interest type of tourism on its own right is further supported. Its multi-faceted character enables OT to be linked to and draw experiences, best practices and, even, market segments, from various already established and running tourism types, as those mentioned above. Still, special interest tourism offers complex and personalised services of high added value (López-Sánchez et al., 2013) to customers, who are willing to spend more and who seek to further explore their personal interests during their holidays than to merely enjoy relaxation and escapism (Torres, 2006). Since special interest tourism is determined mainly by specialised, exacting requirements, the particularities of the demand side of the OT market in Greece should be taken into account, further explored and segmented, so as to update existing programmes and to develop new, targeted ones that can address the expectations and needs of both the domestic and the incoming visitors.
38The study’s limitations primarily stem from the use of the snowball sampling method, which was deemed necessary to access the niche market of OT, resulting in a predominantly domestic sample. Additionally, the research timeframe (winter-spring 2023) coincided with the off-season for outbound tourism, thereby reinforcing the sample’s domestic profile. Therefore, future research efforts should widen the time span and the sample population to consider also international visitors.
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