1The Lobé Waterfall, the object of this study, is located in the southern part of the coast of Cameroon, between 2°33′ – 2°57′ N and 9°18′ – 9°54′ E (document 1), where the river flows into the Atlantic Ocean via a series of waterfalls. The potential of this location for tourism, and the importance of this natural landscape in the life of the riverside residents, highlights the need to associate these residents in the management and preparation process of the proposal for the inclusion of the Lobé Waterfall as a UNESCO1 World Heritage Site.
- 2 Geosite and geotope are synonyms; geosite or geomorphosite is the word used by UNESCO and the Inter (...)
2Indeed, the Lobé Waterfall is a remarkable geosite, a priori favourable for tourism in the midst of an increasingly unfavourable social and economic setting. Approaching the topic from the concept of geosite or geotope2 allows for better recognition of the significance of this site and of the peoples who surround it. According to Strasser et al (1995, p. 3), “geotopes are portions of territory endowed with value for Earth sciences… They are natural monuments of great importance, indispensable even, both for the public and for science”. This definition, which does not explicitly take into account the cultural aspect, is completed with that of geosite or geomorphosite considered as a portion of the geosphere that acquires, due to the perception or exploitation of man, a special significance in scientific, cultural, historic or socio-economic terms.
Document1: Location map of Kribi and the location of the Lobé Waterfall
© Etoga Marcel Hugues.
3These definitions are perfectly adapted to the most remarkable characteristics of the waterfalls of the Lobé River. In fact, they incorporate the three-dimensional cultural aspect and the mental images of the populations (Batanga, Mabi and Pygmy) regarding this resource. This system of images seems to have been the decisive element for the conservation of this geosite. In fact, the value (scientific, historical-cultural, aesthetic and even socio-economic) of a geosite depends, according to Panizza & Piacente (1993, 2004), both on its scientific characteristics and on its use and enhanced value throughout history and its aesthetic perception.
- 3 SOCAPALM: Société Camerounaise des Palmeraies. HEVECAM: Société des Hévéas du Cameroun
4However, this site is threatened by old agricultural industries (SOCAPALM, HEVECAM3) that have been based in the surrounding area since the colonial era. Added to this threat are those resulting from the construction of the deep-water port of Kribi, the activities of the Chad oil pipeline terminal, the gas plant of Mpolongwe and the mining works of the hinterland which contemplate the construction of a railway for the transport of minerals and a four-lane motorway.
5The difficulties for the recognition of this waterfall as heritage have led us to approach the problems of the consideration and conservation of the identities of its peoples and the insubstantial contribution of the site to sustainable tourism on the Cameroonian coast. Indeed, the first hypothesis is based on the fact that the tourist potential and heritage of the region of Kribi are rich, whilst tourism remains embryonic. The second hypothesis is linked to the fact that the promotion of tourism is faced with obstacles and inconveniences inherent to its geographic location and the choice by the authorities of a development model that makes it difficult to harmonise industrialisation and tourism, and which does not include the participation of the populations.
6However, this rich and venerable natural and cultural heritage requires a holistic and participative development process. Therefore, the focus of this work is multidimensional: environmental, based on the relationships between geomorphology and cultural assets (archaeological, historic, architectural etc.) (Panizza 2001) ; historic, based on history as the hub of an interdisciplinary interpretation, that is, based on the concepts of continuity and integration in the current context (Panizza & Piacente 2000) ; and philosophical-cultural approaching dialogue and cultural integration between humanistic and scientific disciplines (in relationship with social, strategic, political, economic or religious requirements) on the one hand, and the geomorphological conditioning factors of the location of the site on the other.
7With regard to its biophysical and cultural originality, this site has attracted the attention of organisations such as the UNIDO and the UNWTO for the application of good practices of sustainable tourism. In fact, this southern part of the Cameroonian coast possesses a rich biodiversity and it is one of the nesting spots of the leatherback turtle in the Gulf of Guinea. On a cultural level, it is one of the few geographical spaces in Central Africa where the Pygmy peoples considered “indigenous” are not only in direct contact with the Ocean but also share the territory with the coastal Mabi and Batanga peoples, in the geosite of the Lobé Waterfall.
8This has led us to study the means and possible solutions for enhancing and conserving the cultural heritage of the three main population groups. We will then explore the involvement of the agents of tourism in the enhancement of the value of the waterfalls. Lastly, we will examine the difficulty of associating the populations with the recognition of the site as heritage and with its management, before posing the question of the sustainability of tourism.
- 4 These consultations took place in the localities of Ndoumale on 23 September 2009 and Nlendilebe on (...)
- 5 Final report of the 6th seminar on the control of environmental management tools for development (M (...)
- 6 COAST: Collaborative Actions for Sustainable Tourism is a project of the Global Environment Fund (F (...)
- 7 These are the administrative, municipal and traditional authorities, tourism professionals, guides, (...)
9On a methodological level, the data have been obtained via fieldwork performed on several occasions. In 2008, the authors took part in the research in Kribi, “Study on a promising sector: ‘Tourism’. Project to support the promotion of employment and the reduction of poverty”, in the framework of a study funded by the International Labour Office and the UNWTO. This research was based on questionnaires and semi-guided conversations with the local populations, hotel managers and the administration. In 2009 and 2011, further fieldwork was performed (Ewolo, 2009 ; Etoga, 2011) to verify the involvement of the populations in the processes for the introduction of tourism. In September 2009, some consultations also took place with the populations of Ndoumale, a village 3 km from the Lobé Waterfall in the framework of an impact study on the expansion of the electricity network in the South region4. The same conflicts were illustrated, added to the lack of consciousness-raising among the local population and the parties involved by the administration and the NGOs. The study showed that the administration had advised the populations to disregard this site in favour of the deep-water port project. In May 2010, a training programme5 began to strengthen the skills of the African experts in environmental assessment for the IEPF-OIF (Institut de l‘Energie et de l’Environnement de la francophonie – Organisation internationale de la Francophonie), in the same place and with the same topic. Lastly, one of the authors participated as a national advisor in the COAST6 project in July 2011. During this research, it was possible to bring the stakeholders7 together at the Hotel Framotel in Kribi. The conclusions highlighted the marginalisation and commodification of the Pygmies by their Mabi and Batanga neighbours, facilitated by the illiteracy of the Pygmies who represent less than 1 % of the population of Cameroon.
- 8 Statistical data obtained from the central and decentralised offices of the Ministry of Tourism (MI (...)
- 9 Mission for the Study and Development of the Ocean.
10In addition, quantitative data were collected regarding the stakeholders and the arrival of tourists. This was completed with statistical information of the MINTOUR8 and the consultation of MEAO9 documents in Kribi. Observations were also made in the Pygmy village of Nanikoumbi, beside the Lobé River, and interviews were held with the Mabi and Batanga chiefs (9 July 2011).
11On a biophysical level, the geosite of the Lobé Waterfall represents a heritage 10 km from the city of Kribi and it forms part of its potential for tourism. Its aesthetic, geomorphological and cultural values have obtained a maximum consideration on a scale of values owing to the unity of its landscape and the spectacle it offers. We have assessed it on the basis of the works of Panizza and Picente (1993), Grandgirard (1995 ; 1999), Reynard (2006) and Reynard et al (2007). From the scientific point of view, the Lobé Waterfall is an excellent teaching resource for the study of diversity, coastal dynamics and the functioning of coastal ecosystems. On the biological and hydrological level, it functions as a wetland and its vegetation fixes the edges of the coast, protecting the lands against marine erosion. Furthermore, this is an area appreciated by the locals for shrimp fishing, owing to its geomorphological configuration (lithome-hydrome). Its scientific value responds to criteria of integrity, representativeness, scarcity and paleogeographic significance. Its value is close to 1 (document 2). However, this place is vulnerable if rules are not established for the development of its activities, which at present do not exist.
Document 2: Assessment of the scientific, cultural and economic value of the geosite of the Lobé Waterfall
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Names
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Scientific value of the geosite
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|
Lobé Waterfall
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Integrity
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Representativeness
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Originality
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Paleogeography
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Total
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|
1.00
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1.00
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1.00
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1.00
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1.00
|
|
Ecological value
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Aesthetic value
|
Cultural value of the Lobé Waterfall
|
Economic value
|
|
Religious value
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Historic value
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Artistic value
|
Geohistoric value
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Total
|
|
1.00
|
1.00
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0.75
|
0.75
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1.00
|
0.75
|
0.81
|
0.75
|
© Tchindjang Mesmin.
12On a socio-economic level, the waterfall is the starting point for the pirogues that go upstream enabling tourists to visit the Pygmy villages. The economic value of this geosite is 0.75
13From the point of view of culture and religion (value: 0.81), its triangular position (Mabi-Batanga-Pygmy ; document 3) represents a place for the coming together of local and foreign cultures (meeting point with the tourists who visit Kribi) whilst at the same time it is a temple for the religious activities of purification (sacrifice, treatment of mystic and esoteric illnesses, meeting with the aquatic divinities, etc.) or blessings by the ancestors. In any case, its mythical significance requires no justification. The beauty of the landscape is only equalled by its charm and the fascination produced by the falls (sensation of wellbeing, emotion, contemplation, calm, simplicity). It is precisely this factor that explains their attraction to the populations, who perform here their rites and meet with the divinities. It is, therefore, an authentic natural heritage in the meaning given by UNESCO, although this definition requires the integration of the local populations in a process of participation led by the State. Moreover, it could be said that the indigenous peoples constitute one of the major attractions of the site, in addition to nature, whilst their neighbours, the Mabi and Batanga, are the main local stakeholders of the development of tourism. Unfortunately, political strategies appear to lead towards their assimilation and disappearance.
Document 3: Trilogy of the riparian peoples upstream from the Lobé Waterfall
In A, the Lobé River and in B the Lobé Waterfall
© Tchindjang Mesmin.
- 10 These communities are the Bakoko; Batanga (Bahono, Bapokou, Batanga Ba Nda); Ewondo; Fang; Iyassa; (...)
14According to numerous sources (Mveng, 1984 ; Fangue Nzeugah, 2001) this part of the riverbank has been populated since the seventeenth century. Indeed, some medium-sized human societies organised on the basis of lineage became established along the coast and intermittently in the forest area. As a consequence, the peoples of the area have very diverse cultures, sometimes related with the water, and sometimes with the thick forest (Nguepjouo, 2005 ; Etoga, 2011). Along the South-Cameroon coast these peoples correspond to nine ethnic communities10, including the Mabi and Batanga, who form part of the great Sawa clan (Tchindjang, 2010, p. 17): (document 4).
Document 4: Ethnic communities of the Kribi coast
© Etoga Marcel Hugues
15The residence of the Pygmies and their culture in the forest goes back 4,000 years (Mveng, 1984). This people appeared in the region of the Mountains of the Moon, in the Rwenzori Mountains, where they received the name of pugmaös, which means [in Greek] elbow height (Abega y Bigombe Logotipo, 2006, p. 26) translated into English as “Pygmy”. The originality of their lifestyles and clothing, and their proximity to the coast, made them a curiosity of this region. Although it is true that the fieldwork and the analyses of the planning documents show the Pygmies to be the most marginalised peoples of this coastal region, paradoxically they constitute a “must see” tourist attraction.
- 11 “The actions of the state may push some groups towards the margins of society by limiting to these (...)
16The Pygmies live essentially from hunting and gathering, fishing and increasingly, in some villages, from agriculture. For a long time, they have taken all they needed from nature. For as long as “the environment is theirs”, they will be capable of using it in a balanced way, all the more so since they are fully aware that their lives depend on that balance (Nguepjouo, 2005). This state of things, however, is today undergoing profound changes that force these populations into a sedentary lifestyle and the mixing of races (Owono, 2003). This is described by many authors as a process, planned or otherwise, of marginalisation led by the central state, which places the Pygmies outside the tourist activities, from which, moreover, they should have been the first to benefit. Azarya (1996, p. 1)11 expresses this well, criticising the planning actions badly executed by the state.
17Certainly, for the three peoples, water occupies a central cultural position (bathing for blessing and malediction, dance, travel, traditional cults, annual festivals). It is a source of food supply and trade. It constitutes an essential means of communication and communion. Owing to the triangulation effect, the Pygmies live upstream and on the right bank, the Mabi occupy the left bank and the Batanga spread downstream. However, the Mabi and Batanga join forces to confine the Pygmies to “their forest abode”, creating a first level of marginalisation.
18The second level, as indicated by Abega and Bigombe Logo (2006, p. 23), is due to the rapid destruction of the forest on which the Pygmies depend for their survival. Added to this is the industrialisation of their surroundings, which increases their marginality on three levels: socio-cultural, economic and political. Worse still, if the Pygmies are marginalised, “their inaccessibility would not result so much from a lack of desire or from their incapacity to integrate in the main group, in the official society of which they now form part, as from the raising of barriers by the dominant neighbouring groups (Bantus or not)… the administrations, councils, development organisations, employers, educators, etc.” (Abega & Bigombe Logo, 2006, p. 23).
19During a third stage, the Pygmies have suffered a process of post-colonial planned acculturation, which has become forced (Abega and Bigombe Logo, 2006, pp. 28-29), since the measures proposed to them do not correspond with their expectations. The forms of marginalisation observed (Abega and Bigombe Logo, 2006 ; field research of the authors) relate to access to basic social services such as education, accommodation, fresh water, health care (hygiene and health). Therefore, their situation is worsening, inserting them in poverty, and they are led to abandon their forest habitat, generating at the same time a permanent lack of health (Abega and Bigombe Logo, 2006, p. 41).
- 12 The Pygmies have excellent skills for finding meat in the forest.
- 13 A good knowledge of traditional pharmacopeia and the treatment of certain paranormal illnesses with (...)
20The example of the Baka Pygmies illustrates this very well. Indeed, prior to the creation of the protected areas, the Baka had acquired a great reputation among the poachers and nearby tribes as experts with knowledge of the forest environment12 and the traditional pharmacopeia13. In exchange, they received articles of clothing, cooking utensils, machetes, hoes. This state of things was modified with the creation and development of the protected areas. The Mabi tourist guides offered the Bagyéli Pygmies of the village of Nanikumbi near Kribi a small sum of money worth two euros for tourist services that are invoiced at between 50 and 100 euros, or recipients of whisky worth a few cents.
21If the efforts of the State of Cameroon and the conservation projects meet with the profound indifference of the Pygmies, they also meet with fierce opposition from the Mabi and the Batanga. We coincide with Olivar de Sardan (1995, p. 169) that “any opposition to an innovation has its reasons and justifications, whether of a strategic or an emotional nature”. In reality, between the state on the one hand and the Mabi and Batanga on the other, there are conflicts over the ownership of the land and the assignment of resources arising from the installation of the Doba-Kribi oil pipeline terminal, which has caused a reduction in the fishing catches of these populations. This conflict situation has been worsened by the building work for the deep-water port of Kribi, since these same populations consider that they have neither been consulted nor compensated. During our consultations, they expressed the opinion that they had been cheated since they were obliged to abandon their sites in exchange for work at the sea port which is slow to be completed or is completed without their real involvement.
22With regard to the Pygmies, we witness, doubtlessly owing to illiteracy, two diametrically opposed discourses. The local discourse, that of the Pygmies, interprets the space according to the places they have always known, to the resources and the social exchanges that take place in the space (relative to man and to the invisible). The official discourse and that of the development institutions and the NGOs is that of conservation, which results in geometry, in the establishment of material limits and the specialisation of the spaces.
23On another scale, the Bagyéli Pygmies are under the yoke of their Mabi or Batanga neighbours with whom they share the forest and coastal space. In the Pygmy/Mabi or Pygmy/Batanga interactions, the Pygmies pursue political recognition as a group. But they are also faced with multiple antagonisms and influences (restrictions imposed by SOCAPALM, the erection of high-voltage electricity pylons, the deep-water port, the qualification of the territory as a protected area with the Campo Ma’an National Park and, lastly, the granting of mining permits in their territory etc.).
24Moreover, their illiteracy prevents the Pygmies from properly understanding and debating the matters discussed at the encounters and meetings (Kombi Etame, 2006, p. 175). However, even if they do not like discussions, those who have been to school are able to argue well and defend their rights and that is what we have verified during the meeting of 8 July 2011 with the parties involved in the consultations for the UNWTO-UNIDO regarding the COAST (Collaborative Actions for Sustainable Tourism) Project. The recommendations of the UNWTO to the government and other stakeholders are due, precisely, to this (UNWTO, 2012, pp. 22-23).
25– The uncontrolled and anarchic development of hotels and restaurants that “dot” the seafront. Fangué Nzeugah (2001) pointed in his study to the illegality of some buildings. Our research reveals that the hotel owners recruit hardly any local people and relationships with them are not always direct, since they prefer to deal with the administration in the event of litigation.
-
The litigations refer to the ownership of the lands between the local communities and the hotel owners and between the different communities (the colonies of Nigerian immigrants and the resident population, the Bantus and the Pygmy minority).
-
The impossibility for the local population of generating alternative incomes impels them to turn to the extraction and sale of sand from the beaches, as well as the cutting and sale of wood from the mangroves for smoking fish.
-
The pollution caused by the industrialists of the palm oil plantations and the oil companies affects fishing and damages the beaches, as occurred with COTCO in January 2007.
-
The felling of trees on the shore worsens coastal erosion. The existing laws are not applied.
26And worse still, the mining operations (including the extraction of sand in the Lobé Waterfall) worsen the situation and reduce the Pygmies to the position of powerless players or spectators of the transformations to their environment. Despite all of this, the culture, folklore and lifestyles of the Pygmies have attracted and continue to attract numerous tourists keen to share the experiences of their daily life. This explains the visits to the Pygmy villages of Kribi in general, and that of Nanikoumbi, upriver from the Lobé Waterfall (5-10 km) in particular. These visits may partially justify the induced sedentary lifestyle of the Pygmies of the village of Nanikoumbi. On the other hand, the brutal transformation of their environment may also explain the fear of the outside experienced by the other Pygmy tribes of the forest, such as the Baka (as pointed out by Kombi Etame, 2006). In view of the destruction of the forest space which obliges them to mix with other groups, the solution would lie in the transfer of the villages close to or integrated in the urban centres and the recognition of the Pygmy culture and of the geosite of the Lobé Waterfall as heritage.
27Tourism on the Kribi coast, as in Cameroon as a whole, is an embryonic activity. Indeed, the situation of this industry is not bright in Cameroon compared to what is known on a worldwide scale. Tchindjang and Kamdem (2011) point out that world tourism has only known two phases of decline since 1960 (in 1982 and 2009). Tourism in Cameroon has seen twelve in the same period. Despite the recurring praise for the potential of Cameroon in this respect, we are still concerned regarding the real possibility of this country to emerge from its stagnation with regard to tourism ; barely 600,000 arrivals for a country with more than 800 tourist destinations including thirty protected areas. Tourism only contributes 1.5 % to the GDP of this country and the volume of jobs created is only 48,000 for a population of close to 19 million inhabitants.
28A large number of the tourists (almost 50,000), the majority European, African and Asian (with at least 40 % of residents) visit Kribi each year. The city of Kribi, since the decline and disqualification of Douala and Limbe, is the main beach destination of Cameroon. Everybody who stays there wishes to visit the Pygmies of the village of Nanikoumbi, whose culture and lifestyle are a curiosity and one of the attractions of the site. The tourist guidebooks (including the oldest ones) highlight the pretty beaches of Kribi, the Lobé Waterfall and the Pygmy villages as though their fate were linked to this place. However, the making of these visits relies on the skills of the Batanga and Mabi boatmen who are the only authorised guides in the area. This situation raises the fundamental problem of the commoditisation and commercialisation of the Pygmies by these guides who negotiate, at a high price, the trip up the Lobé River to visit the villages. Therefore, the introduction of tourism in these places is in opposition to the guidelines of the UNESCO World Heritage Convention (1972) which stipulates respect for others and their culture.
29These activities participate, however, in the promotion of river tourism (walks, contemplation of the landscape from the pirogue). Despite the attitudes of the guides, tourist activity contributes towards reinforcing cultural links between the three peoples, who, although from different cultures, share a common way of life. We have verified in situ how the Mabi chief often crosses the river to resolve conflicts with the neighbouring Pygmy village. Visitors to a village of this forest-dwelling society are able to attend dances and performances intended for tourists (Tchindjang et al, 2011a, p. 47) (document 5a and b).
Document 5: Tourists at the Lobé Waterfalls and in a Pygmy village.
In G: tourists visiting the village of Nanikoumbi ; the roofs of village huts can be seen in the background. In H: the Mabi chief surrounded by MOGED IEPF seminarists
© Tchindjang Mesmin.
- 14 MINTOUR: Field surveys, statistics of the Délégation Départementale du Tourisme et des Loisirs de l (...)
30If tourism began timidly in Kribi, to the extent that the fragmented statistics obtained led Nguepjouo Megaptche (2006) to qualify it as “pretourism” or “harvest tourism” (Béteille, 2000), the situation has now changed considerably. The data collected from different sources14 show that tourist arrivals in Kribi have experienced growth accompanied (document 6a) by a certain improvement to accommodation infrastructures (document 6b). In 2004, the maximum threshold of 10,000 tourists per year was exceeded, reaching around 50,000 in 2010 (document 6a).
Document 6a: Tourist visits to Kribi from 1972 to 2010
Document 6b: Distribution of hotels in Kribi
- 15 These surveys funded by the ILO refer to “tourism and employment”
- 16 Etoga M.H., 2011, Tourisme, risques et enjeux des grands projets de développement sur l’environneme (...)
31These results have been confirmed by the research15 of Ewolo (2009) for the ILO and the studies of Etoga16 (2011, p. 101). Both show a total of almost 65,000 arrivals and 150,000 stays (tourists and visitors combined). This increase surely bears a relationship with the industrialisation of the city of Kribi (Chad pipeline oil terminal, Mpolongwe gas power station, deep-water port, etc.) which has led to the asphalting of the road from Edéa.
32The South region, to which Kribi and the Lobé Waterfall belong, currently holds the third position in the national total of tourism infrastructures and services in terms of distribution of accommodation, restaurant and leisure establishments (document 7).
Document 7: Distribution of tourist infrastructures per region of Cameroon (statistics of the MINTOUR – 2006, processed by the authors)
© Tchindjang Mesmin.
- 17 Ewolo, (2009) ; Kamdem and Tchindjang (2011) ; Tchindjang et al. (2011b, p. 356).
33This dynamic involves the growth of employment (3,000 direct and almost 6,000 indirect and induced17). The Strategy document for growth and employment (MINEPAT, 2009) defined tourism as a flourishing sector and the second national priority.
- 18 Bonoli L., 2007, Otherness is the form of knowledge aimed at understanding and describing cultures (...)
34At the Lobé Waterfall, the intercultural encounters between the three peoples who live in the area on the one hand, and between these populations and the tourists on the other, raise the topic of the knowledge of the cultural otherness18 of the peoples mentioned – taking into account that their cultural heritage is affected by foreign influences, with the alterations caused by tourism.
- 19 Ministry of the Economy and Regional Planning and Regulation. This is the ministerial department th (...)
35However, tourism management is lacking in Cameroon, and the implementation of mechanisms for integrated management of the coastal areas is slow, thus blocking the process for the recognition of heritage begun by the state in 2006 when it proposed this site to UNESCO. The state is also in the midst of a conflict with the local populations owing to the fact that it did not include them in the process of that petition to UNESCO. Indeed, whilst UNESCO has discussed with the government the inclusion of the Lobé Waterfall on the World Heritage List, doubtlessly hoping that the area would be protected, the MINEPAT19 has declared the adjoining territory as a “priority planning zone” (ZUP), thus allowing its occupation for urban uses. There has been practically no consultation with the local population. One can therefore wonder whether the authorities really seek to use the site for tourism or simply the industrialisation of the city. A common vision and dialogue between the stakeholders is therefore vital.
36The particular heritage and the collective memory of each place and community are irreplaceable and represent an essential foundation for development. In Cameroon, however, participative management is lacking. The management of tourism in the territory ignores and totally hides the role of the local populations in the development of tourism. This situation is worsened because the country lacks an effective and efficient policy in the sphere of tourism, a Master Plan for the Development of Tourism and an efficient plan for regulation of the hubs of tourism development, aimed at sustainable development and the support of growth. Our research (2010 – 2012) confirms that the populations do not oppose the recognition of the Lobé Waterfall as heritage. However, the absence of campaigns for raising awareness or strengthening the capacities of the stakeholders in the sphere of tourism prevents the local populations from becoming involved in the process. Several reasons can partly explain this.
-
- 20 Law No. 98/006 of 14 April 1998 relative to tourist activity, 13p. and its implementation decree No (...)
Lame and inadequate, extremely antiquated legislation. The tourism law of 199820 does not take into account citizen participation and the consideration of the interests of the local populations. It thus acts against tourism and is difficult to apply, since it does not provide for any control “in situ”. Decentralisation (promulgated via the law of 2004 and implemented in 2008) could constitute one of the tools for the taking of responsibility and appropriation of the tourism projects by local stakeholders. From this point of view, decentralised cooperation could have a lever effect, since it would lead other players in national and international tourism to take an interest and invest in the protection and enhancement of the cultural heritage. In view of these multiple stakeholders, leadership and coordination are essential to avoid all the problems of management.
-
Exploitation of the Pygmy people, commoditised by their Batanga and Mabi neighbours, who affirm that “the Pygmies do not know what to do with the money that the tourists give them”. Remunerated with gin/whisky and cigarette ends by their more astute neighbours, they are incited to consume drugs and alcohol, with which tourism is, indirectly, involved.
-
The illiteracy of almost all the young pygmies (especially the males) which reinforces the social gap between the Pygmies and their neighbours, creates difficulties in communication with the tourists and visitors.
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Conflicts between the internal stakeholders of tourism (administrations, local populations and private economic operators) regarding the management of the site owing to the absence of a platform for agreement between these different stakeholders.
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Hesitations of the Cameroonian state (absence of a Plan for the Regulation and Development of the Cameroon Coast, lack of laws regulating the coastal environment…).
37It is therefore very much to be feared that the Lobé Waterfall, once included on the UNESCO World Heritage List, will be abandoned as is currently the case of the Dja Biosphere Reserve. Indeed, this World Heritage Site (inscribed in 1987) is threatened by poachers. The Pygmies who live in the surrounding area have not only seen their territory confined, but also their villages transformed into street-villages with the drive for modernisation of the area. This explains their extreme marginalisation. This reservation is shared by the administration with various other concerns that may contribute to downgrading it even more. Other biosphere reserves in Cameroon are in the same situation (Waza National Park and Bénoué National Park). The worst aspect is that these protected areas “die” during the first year of application of the duly approved management plan.
38In the case of the Lobé Waterfall, the State has opted exclusively, without stating this, for the structural projects indicated above. Furthermore, the absence of zoning of the existing agricultural-industrial units (SOCAPALM and HEVECAM) accentuates the lack of criteria and poses the question of the application of the regional strategic environmental evaluation performed by the Dutch office Haskonin in 2008 at the request of the World Bank in the framework of the structural projects (mining operations and mineral transport to the deep-water port under construction, gas operations, road and railway construction). Indeed, the building work for the port began without prior payment of the contemplated compensations. This situation thus adds to the discontent of the riparian populations. Moreover, document 8 on the impacts of tourist activity sets out to show the danger that threatens the area if certain mechanisms of sustainable tourism are not established. This failure to take into account the environmental considerations runs the risk of compromising this heritage and the development of sustainable tourism on this site and in the region in general.
Document 8: Impacts of tourism on the site of the Lobé Waterfall and the different stakeholders.
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Impats
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Positive
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Negative
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Impacts of tourism on the waterfalls and their environment
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Upgrading of the site ;
Upgrading of the cultural ans natural heritage ;
Sustainable management of the site and its environment ;
definition of a tourist image of the city of Kribi ;
Promotion of the forms of sustainable tourism (scientific, cultural, tourism,…) ;
Conservation and upgrading of the biodiversity.
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Dysfunctions and rupture of environmental balances (over-attendance at the site) ;
Dismishing of natural tourism resources ;
Increase in illegal hunting of protected species.
|
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Impacts of tourism on the Pygmies
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Promotion and enhancement og th cultural, artistic, natural and folkloric heritage ;
Simplification of contact with others ;
Appropriation of a tourist cultural identity.
|
Cultural otherness and sedentary lifestyle ;
Cultural mixing ;
Tourist exploitation or commoditisation of the Pygmy settlement.
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Impacts of tourism on the Batanga and Mabi
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Creation of indirect and induced jobs ;
Upgrading of the cultural, folkloric, artistic and natural heritage ;
Simplification of contact with others ;
Appropriation of a new cultural identity ;
Upgrading of land and water biodiversity ;
Appropriation and assimilation of the concept of sustainable development.
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Diminishing of fishing resources (shrimps, fish, crabs,…) ;
Loss of cultural values ;
School drop-out ;
Early marriages ;
Divorce ;
Prostitution (sexual tourism, STD,…).
|
|
Impacts of the Pygmies on the development of tourist activity
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Appropriation of the tourist activity by their Batanga and Mabi neighbours ;
Vration of naw tourism-releated jobs for their neighbours (local guide interpreter-escort,…) ;
Development of sustainable rural tourism via their cultural and ethnic component ;
Practice of sustainable tourism based on the participation of the communities in the commencement
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Smothering of sustainable rural tourism in the Pygmies are marginalised.
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The negative impacts are controllable if the populations are made aware of and associated with the process
© Tchindjang Mesmin.
- 21 These 12 objectives are: economic viability, local prosperity, quality of employment, social equity (...)
39The concept of “sustainable tourism development” should, according to the UNWTO, cover: “all forms of tourism development, adaptation or activity that respect and preserve the natural, cultural and social resources in the long term, and contribute positively and fairly to the economic development and expectations of the individuals who live, work or stay in these spaces”. This definition emphasises the conservation of nature and societies, in a word the heritage of a region. Therefore, the expectations of the individuals and their participation in tourism development should be taken into account. The UNDP and the UNWTO (UNEP and WTO, 2005: 20) point to 12 objectives for sustainable tourism21. These principles, in our opinion, partly take up the values mentioned in the evaluation of the geosite, but they also underline values and needs inherent to local culture and protection of the environment.
40Thus, regarding what has already been said, the implementation of sustainable tourism at the Lobé Waterfall and in the surrounding area requires several conditions, three of which are of the utmost importance in our opinion and these are indicated below.
411. A plan for subdivision into zones of the site of the Lobé Waterfall and the surrounding area. The majority of the analyses performed in situ reveal the absence of a zoning plan that assigns each activity to a sector of the territory. Indeed, the cacophony and anarchy observed in the distribution of the hotels or the placement of the agricultural-industrial units, the structural projects, etc. constitute threats that are liable to suffocate the site and its vocation for tourism, and only a clear zoning plan would be able to resolve this difficulty. Now, direct management by the State does not allow involvement in the decision-making by the riparian populations, the private sector and the other parties involved ; this has resulted in bad governance of tourism, together with the failure to strengthen the competences of the stakeholders involved in the management of tourism and the environment.
42Zoning would effectively allow the insertion of the Lobé Waterfall and the territory of the Pygmies in the regional zoning. It would also facilitate the correction of the problems of land ownership via the recognition and respect of such rights, as well as the rights of use, and access to forest and fishing resources by these populations. It would allow compensation for the land taken from the riparian populations and allocated to agricultural-industrial companies, to the construction of the port and other strategic projects that reduce the vital space of the indigenous populations. This compensation may, on an incentive principle, be in land, money and infrastructures. In any case, the zoning should allow the Cameroonian State to harmonise the conservation of the Lobé Waterfall and the execution of the large structural projects of the territory (document 9).
Document 9: Trial zoning of the Cameroon coast around Kribi
© Tchindjang Mesmin
432. The enhancement of the cultural identities of the three population groups
44Regarding the upsurge of tourism and urban development on this site, if is inferred that the cultural identities of the three population groups affected will experience a loss of historical and archaeological references. However, with the development of cultural tourism, it is appropriate to hope for a resurgence of cultural wealth and a diversification of tourist attractions in the area. In any case, each group has already made an inventory of their different cultural and historic manifestations. All that remains is to resolve the spiny problem of awareness-raising.
453. The need to reinforce awareness and effective participation of the riparian populations, in particular, in the communities of the villages that are not currently involved in tourism to increase the security of the visitors and enable these communities to generate revenues. Let us take as an example the ecological tourism of Mount Cameroon, commenced by the GTZ in 2000, studied by Békima, (2001) and later in greater depth by Tchouankep Petntang (2010). This example demonstrates the capacity of trained and aware populations to assume the management of their own destiny. It is thus shown that it is possible to introduce community tourism based on this appropriation. This requires, on the one hand, the effective participation (information, consultation, strengthening of local capacities, etc.) of the three population groups, on the equitable foundation of vertical and horizontal planning of the activities ; and, on the other hand, management of the forest and fishing resources. But all of this is necessarily affected by the spiny problem of literacy, access to infrastructures and basic social services. In this framework, it would be appropriate to seek to enhance the knowledge and experience of the Pygmies with regard to traditional pharmacopeia at a time when medicinal plants and traditional practices are recognised and integrated in the healthcare planning of Cameroon. The same occurs with awareness-raising and information for the tourists via the creation of a tourist information centre, the installation of public toilets for visitors, adequate signposting, etc., to enable the city of Kribi to compete efficiently with other places and earn the trust placed in it as a model location for the COAST STEP project of the UNIDO-UNWTO.
46The approach to the recognition of the Lobé Waterfall as heritage via the term “geosite” allows awareness of the potential of this environment for tourism. Via a brief presentation of the peoples who inhabit the area, we have been able to analyse the role and the impacts of tourism on the cultural otherness of these human groups. It has been seen that otherness has not completely erased the cultural identity of the primitive Pygmy people, unlike the Mabi and Batanga, who are struggling to recuperate some aspects of their culture to find their identity. This identity constitutes the basis of their life and culture of yesterday, today and, without doubt, tomorrow. All of this demonstrates that the well-managed enhancement and conservation of their culture may boost the development of tourism at the Lobé Waterfall at the same time as the waterfall favours their conservation, correcting the errors and shortfalls observed. Moreover, integrated management is a prior condition in the eyes of the UNWTO-UNIDO. This is a path that should be explored, since tourism acts as a double-edged sword. It may have a positive impact on social development or a negative impact at a triple level: social, cultural and environmental. Integration is a political act that requires the precise analysis of the effects of tourism on the natural and human environment. Therefore, the participation of the indigenous peoples and the local populations is a guarantee of success. The tourist industry should be considered with all its direct and indirect consequences. However, in the light of the problems of tourism as a driving force for sustainable development in World Heritage Sites, the most urgent factor is the appropriation of this natural and cultural heritage in the nation as a whole by the local populations (via awareness-raising, the sharing of responsibilities, respect for minority rights) via official mechanisms (state involvement). All of this would facilitate the inscription of this site on the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites and we could thus witness the birth of sustainable community tourism via its cultural components.
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